diff --git a/main.pdf b/main.pdf index 282fd26..2f50e6c 100644 Binary files a/main.pdf and b/main.pdf differ diff --git a/main.tex b/main.tex index 86114fd..51dc828 100644 --- a/main.tex +++ b/main.tex @@ -1512,14 +1512,286 @@ Bell metal & Cu (78\%), Sn (22\%) & Resonant, hard & Bells, cymbals \\ \textbf{Iodoform test:} Specific for compounds with \ce{CH3CO-} or \ce{CH3CH(OH)-} structure. +\section{Chemical nomenclature: Prefixes and suffixes} + +\subsection{Numerical prefixes} + +\begin{table}[H] +\centering +\begin{tabular}{lll} +\toprule +Prefix & Number & Example \\ +\midrule +mono- & 1 & Monoxide, monohydrate \\ +di- & 2 & Dioxide, dichloride \\ +tri- & 3 & Trichloride, trioxide \\ +tetra- & 4 & Tetrachloride, tetrahedral \\ +penta- & 5 & Pentoxide, pentane \\ +hexa- & 6 & Hexane, hexafluoride \\ +hepta- & 7 & Heptane, heptoxide \\ +octa- & 8 & Octane, octahedron \\ +nona- & 9 & Nonane, nonoxide \\ +deca- & 10 & Decane, decahydrate \\ +undeca- & 11 & Undecane \\ +dodeca- & 12 & Dodecane, dodecahedron \\ +\bottomrule +\end{tabular} +\end{table} + +\subsection{Hydrocarbon chain prefixes} + +\begin{table}[H] +\centering +\begin{tabular}{llll} +\toprule +Prefix & \# Carbons & Root Word & Example \\ +\midrule +meth- & 1 & Methane & Methanol, methyl \\ +eth- & 2 & Ethane & Ethanol, ethyl \\ +prop- & 3 & Propane & Propanol, propyl \\ +but- & 4 & Butane & Butanol, butyl \\ +pent- & 5 & Pentane & Pentanol, pentyl \\ +hex- & 6 & Hexane & Hexanol, hexyl \\ +hept- & 7 & Heptane & Heptanol, heptyl \\ +oct- & 8 & Octane & Octanol, octyl \\ +non- & 9 & Nonane & Nonanol, nonyl \\ +dec- & 10 & Decane & Decanol, decyl \\ +\bottomrule +\end{tabular} +\end{table} + +\subsection{Structural and positional prefixes} + +\begin{longtable}{p{2.5cm}p{5cm}p{5.5cm}} +\toprule +Prefix & Meaning & Example \\ +\midrule +\endfirsthead +\toprule +Prefix & Meaning & Example \\ +\midrule +\endhead +iso- & Branched (methyl on penultimate carbon) & Isopropanol, isobutane \\ +neo- & New, highly branched & Neopentane \\ +sec- & Secondary (2$^\circ$, attached to 2 carbons) & sec-Butanol \\ +tert- & Tertiary (3$^\circ$, attached to 3 carbons) & tert-Butanol \\ +cyclo- & Cyclic/ring structure & Cyclohexane, cyclopropane \\ +ortho- (o-) & Adjacent positions on benzene (1,2) & o-Xylene, o-cresol \\ +meta- (m-) & Separated by one carbon on benzene (1,3) & m-Xylene \\ +para- (p-) & Opposite positions on benzene (1,4) & p-Xylene, p-cresol \\ +cis- & Same side (geometric isomer) & cis-2-Butene \\ +trans- & Opposite sides (geometric isomer) & trans-2-Butene \\ +\bottomrule +\end{longtable} + +\subsection{Halogen prefixes} + +\begin{table}[H] +\centering +\begin{tabular}{lll} +\toprule +Prefix & Halogen & Example \\ +\midrule +fluoro- & Fluorine (F) & Fluoromethane, fluorobenzene \\ +chloro- & Chlorine (Cl) & Chloroform, chlorobenzene \\ +bromo- & Bromine (Br) & Bromoethane, bromobenzene \\ +iodo- & Iodine (I) & Iodoform, iodobenzene \\ +\bottomrule +\end{tabular} +\end{table} + +\subsection{Other common prefixes} + +\begin{longtable}{p{2.5cm}p{5cm}p{5.5cm}} +\toprule +Prefix & Meaning & Example \\ +\midrule +\endfirsthead +\toprule +Prefix & Meaning & Example \\ +\midrule +\endhead +per- & Maximum/complete & Perchloric acid, peroxide \\ +hypo- & Less than normal oxidation state & Hypochlorous acid \\ +thio- & Sulfur replacing oxygen & Thiosulfate, thiol \\ +oxy- & Oxygen in compound & Oxytocin \\ +nitro- & \ce{-NO2} group & Nitrobenzene, nitroglycerin \\ +nitroso- & \ce{-NO} group & Nitrosobenzene \\ +amino- & \ce{-NH2} group & Aminobenzoic acid \\ +hydroxy- & \ce{-OH} group & Hydroxybenzoic acid \\ +oxo- & \ce{=O} group (ketone/aldehyde) & Oxoacid \\ +carb- & Carbon & Carbide, carbon \\ +cyan- & \ce{-CN} group & Cyanide, cyanohydrin \\ +acet- & Related to acetic acid/acetyl & Acetate, acetone, acetyl \\ +form- & Related to formic acid/formyl & Formate, formaldehyde \\ +benz- & Related to benzene & Benzyl, benzoyl, benzoic \\ +phenyl- & \ce{C6H5-} group & Phenylamine (aniline) \\ +vinyl- & \ce{CH2=CH-} group & Vinyl chloride \\ +allyl- & \ce{CH2=CH-CH2-} group & Allyl alcohol \\ +\bottomrule +\end{longtable} + +\subsection{Functional group suffixes} + +\begin{longtable}{p{2.5cm}p{4cm}p{6.5cm}} +\toprule +Suffix & Functional Group & Example \\ +\midrule +\endfirsthead +\toprule +Suffix & Functional Group & Example \\ +\midrule +\endhead +-ane & Alkane (single bonds) & Methane, ethane, propane \\ +-ene & Alkene (double bond) & Ethene (ethylene), propene \\ +-yne & Alkyne (triple bond) & Ethyne (acetylene), propyne \\ +-yl & Alkyl group (substituent) & Methyl, ethyl, propyl \\ +-ol & Alcohol (\ce{-OH}) & Methanol, ethanol, phenol \\ +-al & Aldehyde (\ce{-CHO}) & Methanal (formaldehyde), ethanal \\ +-one & Ketone (\ce{C=O}) & Acetone (propanone), butanone \\ +-oic acid & Carboxylic acid (\ce{-COOH}) & Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) \\ +-oate & Ester (\ce{-COO-}) & Ethyl acetate (ethyl ethanoate) \\ +-amide & Amide (\ce{-CONH2}) & Acetamide, formamide \\ +-amine & Amine (\ce{-NH2}) & Methylamine, ethylamine \\ +-nitrile & Nitrile (\ce{-CN}) & Acetonitrile, propionitrile \\ +-ether & Ether (\ce{-O-}) & Diethyl ether \\ +-thiol & Thiol (\ce{-SH}) & Ethanethiol, methanethiol \\ +-ate & Salt of acid & Sulfate, nitrate, acetate \\ +-ite & Salt of -ous acid & Sulfite, nitrite \\ +-ide & Binary compound/ion & Chloride, oxide, sulfide \\ +\bottomrule +\end{longtable} + +\subsection{Acid nomenclature patterns} + +\begin{table}[H] +\centering +\begin{tabular}{llll} +\toprule +Oxidation State & Acid Name & Salt Name & Example \\ +\midrule +Highest & per-...-ic acid & per-...-ate & Perchloric acid/perchlorate \\ +High & -ic acid & -ate & Sulfuric acid/sulfate \\ +Low & -ous acid & -ite & Sulfurous acid/sulfite \\ +Lowest & hypo-...-ous acid & hypo-...-ite & Hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite \\ +\bottomrule +\end{tabular} +\end{table} + +\textbf{Examples:} +\begin{itemize} +\item \ce{HClO4} - Perchloric acid $\rightarrow$ Perchlorate (\ce{ClO4-}) +\item \ce{HClO3} - Chloric acid $\rightarrow$ Chlorate (\ce{ClO3-}) +\item \ce{HClO2} - Chlorous acid $\rightarrow$ Chlorite (\ce{ClO2-}) +\item \ce{HClO} - Hypochlorous acid $\rightarrow$ Hypochlorite (\ce{ClO-}) +\end{itemize} + \section{Name of organic compounds} \subsection{Hydrocarbons and their Halogen derivatives} +\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3cm}p{7cm}} +\toprule +Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\ +\midrule +\endfirsthead +\toprule +Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\ +\midrule +\endhead +Methane & \ce{CH4} & Natural gas, simplest alkane \\ +Ethane & \ce{C2H6} & Component of natural gas \\ +Propane & \ce{C3H8} & LPG fuel, refrigerant \\ +Butane & \ce{C4H10} & Lighter fuel, aerosol propellant \\ +Isobutane & \ce{(CH3)3CH} & Branched isomer of butane, refrigerant \\ +Pentane & \ce{C5H12} & Laboratory solvent \\ +Hexane & \ce{C6H14} & Extraction solvent \\ +Octane & \ce{C8H18} & Gasoline component \\ +Paraffin & \ce{C_{n}H_{2n+2}} & Wax, candles (long chain alkanes) \\ +Ethylene & \ce{C2H4} & Fruit ripening agent, plastic production \\ +Propylene & \ce{C3H6} & Polypropylene production \\ +Acetylene & \ce{C2H2} & Welding gas, illumination \\ +Isoprene & \ce{C5H8} & Natural rubber monomer \\ +Methyl chloride & \ce{CH3Cl} & Refrigerant, methylating agent \\ +Chloroform & \ce{CHCl3} & Solvent, formerly anesthetic \\ +Carbon tetrachloride & \ce{CCl4} & Solvent, fire extinguisher (obsolete) \\ +Freon-12 & \ce{CCl2F2} & Refrigerant (CFC, now banned) \\ +Teflon monomer & \ce{CF2=CF2} & Tetrafluoroethylene, non-stick coating \\ +DDT & \ce{(ClC6H4)2CHCCl3} & Insecticide (banned in many countries) \\ +Vinyl chloride & \ce{CH2=CHCl} & PVC plastic monomer \\ +Methylene chloride & \ce{CH2Cl2} & Paint stripper, degreaser \\ +Bromoform & \ce{CHBr3} & Laboratory reagent, formerly sedative \\ +Iodoform & \ce{CHI3} & Antiseptic (yellow crystalline) \\ +Ethyl bromide & \ce{C2H5Br} & Local anesthetic, refrigerant \\ +Methyl iodide & \ce{CH3I} & Methylating agent in synthesis \\ +\bottomrule +\end{longtable} + \subsection{Alicyclic compounds and aromatic compounds} +\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3cm}p{7cm}} +\toprule +Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\ +\midrule +\endfirsthead +\toprule +Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\ +\midrule +\endhead +Cyclopropane & \ce{C3H6} & Anesthetic (cyclic alkane) \\ +Cyclohexane & \ce{C6H12} & Solvent, nylon precursor \\ +Benzene & \ce{C6H6} & Aromatic solvent, carcinogenic \\ +Toluene & \ce{C6H5CH3} & Solvent, paint thinner, TNT precursor \\ +Xylene & \ce{C6H4(CH3)2} & Solvent, histology (three isomers) \\ +Styrene & \ce{C6H5CH=CH2} & Polystyrene monomer, plastic foam \\ +Cumene & \ce{C6H5CH(CH3)2} & Phenol production, isopropylbenzene \\ +Naphthalene & \ce{C10H8} & Mothballs, formerly used in lighting \\ +Anthracene & \ce{C14H10} & Dye production, organic semiconductor \\ +Phenanthrene & \ce{C14H10} & PAH compound, synthesis precursor \\ +Biphenyl & \ce{C6H5-C6H5} & Heat transfer fluid, citrus preservative \\ +TNT & \ce{C6H2(NO2)3CH3} & Explosive (trinitrotoluene) \\ +Picric acid & \ce{C6H2(NO2)3OH} & Explosive, yellow dye \\ +Aniline & \ce{C6H5NH2} & Dye production, rubber processing \\ +Nitrobenzene & \ce{C6H5NO2} & Aniline precursor, shoe polish odor \\ +Benzyl chloride & \ce{C6H5CH2Cl} & Synthesis intermediate, lachrymator \\ +Chlorobenzene & \ce{C6H5Cl} & Solvent, DDT production \\ +\bottomrule +\end{longtable} + \subsection{Alcohol, phenols, ketones and aldehyde} +\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{6.5cm}} +\toprule +Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\ +\midrule +\endfirsthead +\toprule +Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\ +\midrule +\endhead +Methanol & \ce{CH3OH} & Wood alcohol, fuel, toxic \\ +Ethanol & \ce{C2H5OH} & Drinking alcohol, solvent, fuel \\ +Isopropanol & \ce{(CH3)2CHOH} & Rubbing alcohol, disinfectant \\ +Butanol & \ce{C4H9OH} & Solvent, plasticizer \\ +Ethylene glycol & \ce{HOCH2CH2OH} & Antifreeze, polyester precursor \\ +Glycerol (Glycerin) & \ce{HOCH2CH(OH)CH2OH} & Soap making, sweetener, explosives \\ +Phenol & \ce{C6H5OH} & Disinfectant, plastic precursor, caustic \\ +Cresol & \ce{CH3C6H4OH} & Disinfectant, wood preservative \\ +Resorcinol & \ce{C6H4(OH)2} & Adhesives, dyes, antiseptic \\ +Hydroquinone & \ce{C6H4(OH)2} & Photo developer, skin lightener \\ +Catechol & \ce{C6H4(OH)2} & Antioxidant, photo developer \\ +Formaldehyde & \ce{HCHO} & Preservative, disinfectant, resin \\ +Acetaldehyde & \ce{CH3CHO} & Acetic acid precursor, flavor \\ +Benzaldehyde & \ce{C6H5CHO} & Almond odor, flavoring \\ +Acetone & \ce{CH3COCH3} & Nail polish remover, solvent \\ +Methyl ethyl ketone & \ce{CH3COC2H5} & Paint remover, MEK solvent \\ +Camphor & \ce{C10H16O} & Medicinal, moth repellent, plasticizer \\ +Vanillin & \ce{C8H8O3} & Vanilla flavoring from vanilla beans \\ +Cinnamaldehyde & \ce{C6H5CH=CHCHO} & Cinnamon flavor and odor \\ +Menthol & \ce{C10H20O} & Cooling sensation, mint flavor \\ +\bottomrule +\end{longtable} + \subsection{Carboxylic acids and esters} \subsection{Amines, amides and nitriles}