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\title{Chemistry Vocabulary}
\author{}
\date{}

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\begin{document}

\maketitle

\section*{Introduction}

\section{Elements and elementary substances}

\subsection{Alkali metals}

\subsubsection{Elements}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
\toprule
Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
\midrule
3 & Li & Lithium & Lithium & 6.94 \\
11 & Na & Sodium & Natrium & 22.99 \\
19 & K & Potassium & Kalium & 39.10 \\
37 & Rb & Rubidium & Rubidium & 85.47 \\
55 & Cs & Cesium & Caesium & 132.91 \\
87 & Fr & Francium & Francium & (223) \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\small
\begin{tabular}{p{1.5cm}p{1.8cm}p{1.8cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
\toprule
Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
\midrule
Li & 180.5 & 1342 & BCC & Batteries, alloys \\
Na & 97.7 & 883 & BCC & Reducing agent, coolant \\
K & 63.5 & 759 & BCC & Fertilizer, gun powder \\
Rb & 39.3 & 688 & BCC & Photoelectric cells \\
Cs & 28.4 & 671 & BCC & Atomic clocks \\
Fr & 27 & 677 & --- & Radioactive, no use \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}

\textbf{Sodium (Na):} Electrolysis of molten NaCl: \ce{2NaCl ->[electrolysis] 2Na + Cl2 ^}

\textbf{Potassium (K):} Reduction of KCl with Na at high temperature: \ce{KCl + Na ->[high T] K ^ + NaCl}

\subsection{Alkaline earth metals}

\subsubsection{Elements}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
\toprule
Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
\midrule
4 & Be & Beryllium & Beryllium & 9.01 \\
12 & Mg & Magnesium & Magnesium & 24.31 \\
20 & Ca & Calcium & Calcium & 40.08 \\
38 & Sr & Strontium & Strontium & 87.62 \\
56 & Ba & Barium & Barium & 137.33 \\
88 & Ra & Radium & Radium & (226) \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\small
\begin{tabular}{p{1.5cm}p{1.8cm}p{1.8cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
\toprule
Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
\midrule
Be & 1287 & 2470 & HCP & Alloys, X-ray windows \\
Mg & 650 & 1090 & HCP & Alloys, fireworks \\
Ca & 842 & 1484 & FCC & Reducing agent, cement \\
Sr & 777 & 1382 & FCC & Fireworks (red) \\
Ba & 727 & 1897 & BCC & Drilling fluids \\
Ra & 700 & 1737 & BCC & Radioactive, obsolete \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}

\textbf{Magnesium (Mg):} Electrolysis of molten MgCl$_2$: \ce{MgCl2 ->[electrolysis] Mg + Cl2 ^}

Alternatively, reduction of MgO with coke: \ce{MgO + C ->[high T] Mg ^ + CO ^}

\textbf{Calcium (Ca):} Electrolysis of molten CaCl$_2$ or reduction of CaO with Al

\subsection{Transition metals}

\subsubsection{Elements (First Row)}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\small
\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
\toprule
Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
\midrule
21 & Sc & Scandium & Scandium & 44.96 \\
22 & Ti & Titanium & Titanium & 47.87 \\
23 & V & Vanadium & Vanadium & 50.94 \\
24 & Cr & Chromium & Chromium & 52.00 \\
25 & Mn & Manganese & Manganese & 54.94 \\
26 & Fe & Iron & Ferrum & 55.85 \\
27 & Co & Cobalt & Cobaltum & 58.93 \\
28 & Ni & Nickel & Niccolum & 58.69 \\
29 & Cu & Copper & Cuprum & 63.55 \\
30 & Zn & Zinc & Zincum & 65.38 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Important Elements (Other Rows)}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
\toprule
Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
\midrule
47 & Ag & Silver & Argentum & 107.87 \\
48 & Cd & Cadmium & Cadmium & 112.41 \\
74 & W & Tungsten & Wolframium & 183.84 \\
78 & Pt & Platinum & Platinum & 195.08 \\
79 & Au & Gold & Aurum & 196.97 \\
80 & Hg & Mercury & Hydrargyrum & 200.59 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}

\begin{longtable}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.2cm}p{4.5cm}}
\toprule
Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
\midrule
\endfirsthead
\toprule
Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
\midrule
\endhead
Ti & 1668 & 3287 & HCP & Aerospace alloys, pigments \\
V & 1910 & 3407 & BCC & Steel alloys, catalysts \\
Cr & 1907 & 2671 & BCC & Stainless steel, plating \\
Mn & 1246 & 2061 & Cubic & Steel production \\
Fe & 1538 & 2862 & BCC & Construction, machinery \\
Co & 1495 & 2927 & HCP & Alloys, magnets \\
Ni & 1455 & 2913 & FCC & Alloys, catalysts, coins \\
Cu & 1085 & 2562 & FCC & Electrical wire, plumbing \\
Zn & 419.5 & 907 & HCP & Galvanization, batteries \\
Ag & 961.8 & 2162 & FCC & Jewelry, conductors \\
Cd & 321.1 & 767 & HCP & Batteries, pigments \\
W & 3422 & 5555 & BCC & Light bulb filaments \\
Pt & 1768 & 3825 & FCC & Catalysts, jewelry \\
Au & 1064 & 2856 & FCC & Jewelry, electronics \\
Hg & -38.8 & 356.7 & Rhombohedral & Thermometers, lamps \\
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}

\textbf{Iron (Fe):} Reduction in blast furnace: \ce{Fe2O3 + 3CO ->[high T] 2Fe + 3CO2}

\textbf{Copper (Cu):} Roasting sulfide ore then reduction: \ce{2Cu2S + 3O2 -> 2Cu2O + 2SO2}, then \ce{Cu2S + 2Cu2O -> 6Cu + SO2 ^}

Alternatively, leaching and electrowinning from oxide ores.

\textbf{Zinc (Zn):} Roasting then reduction with carbon: \ce{2ZnS + 3O2 -> 2ZnO + 2SO2}, then \ce{ZnO + C -> Zn + CO}

\textbf{Chromium (Cr):} Reduction of Cr$_2$O$_3$ with aluminum (thermite process): \ce{Cr2O3 + 2Al -> 2Cr + Al2O3}

\subsection{Post-transition metals}

\subsubsection{Elements}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
\toprule
Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
\midrule
13 & Al & Aluminum & Aluminium & 26.98 \\
31 & Ga & Gallium & Gallium & 69.72 \\
49 & In & Indium & Indium & 114.82 \\
50 & Sn & Tin & Stannum & 118.71 \\
81 & Tl & Thallium & Thallium & 204.38 \\
82 & Pb & Lead & Plumbum & 207.2 \\
83 & Bi & Bismuth & Bismuthum & 208.98 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\small
\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.2cm}p{4.5cm}}
\toprule
Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
\midrule
Al & 660.3 & 2519 & FCC & Packaging, construction \\
Ga & 29.8 & 2204 & Orthorhombic & Semiconductors, LEDs \\
In & 156.6 & 2072 & Tetragonal & LCD screens, solders \\
Sn & 231.9 & 2602 & Tetragonal & Solder, coatings \\
Tl & 304 & 1473 & HCP & Rat poison (obsolete) \\
Pb & 327.5 & 1749 & FCC & Batteries, radiation shield \\
Bi & 271.4 & 1564 & Rhombohedral & Alloys, cosmetics \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}

\textbf{Aluminum (Al):} Hall-H\'eroult process (electrolysis of Al$_2$O$_3$ dissolved in molten cryolite): 

\ce{2Al2O3 ->[electrolysis] 4Al + 3O2 ^}

\textbf{Lead (Pb):} Roasting galena (PbS) then reduction: \ce{2PbS + 3O2 -> 2PbO + 2SO2}, then \ce{PbO + C -> Pb + CO}

\textbf{Tin (Sn):} Reduction of cassiterite (SnO$_2$) with carbon: \ce{SnO2 + 2C -> Sn + 2CO ^}

\subsection{Metalloids}

\subsubsection{Elements}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
\toprule
Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
\midrule
5 & B & Boron & Borium & 10.81 \\
14 & Si & Silicon & Silicium & 28.09 \\
32 & Ge & Germanium & Germanium & 72.64 \\
33 & As & Arsenic & Arsenicum & 74.92 \\
51 & Sb & Antimony & Stibium & 121.76 \\
52 & Te & Tellurium & Tellurium & 127.60 \\
84 & Po & Polonium & Polonium & (209) \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\small
\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.2cm}p{4.5cm}}
\toprule
Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
\midrule
B & 2075 & 4000 & Rhombohedral & Glass, detergents \\
Si & 1414 & 3265 & Diamond cubic & Semiconductors, solar cells \\
Ge & 938.3 & 2833 & Diamond cubic & Semiconductors, optics \\
As & 817 & 614 (subl.) & Rhombohedral & Alloys, pesticides \\
Sb & 630.6 & 1587 & Rhombohedral & Flame retardants, alloys \\
Te & 449.5 & 988 & Hexagonal & Alloys, solar cells \\
Po & 254 & 962 & Cubic & Radioactive, no common use \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}

\textbf{Silicon (Si):} Reduction of silica (SiO$_2$) with carbon in electric furnace: \ce{SiO2 + 2C ->[high T] Si + 2CO ^}

For ultrapure silicon (semiconductors): Trichlorosilane reduction: \ce{SiHCl3 + H2 ->[high T] Si + 3HCl}

\subsection{Halogen}

\subsubsection{Elements}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
\toprule
Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
\midrule
9 & F & Fluorine & Fluorum & 19.00 \\
17 & Cl & Chlorine & Chlorum & 35.45 \\
35 & Br & Bromine & Bromum & 79.90 \\
53 & I & Iodine & Iodum & 126.90 \\
85 & At & Astatine & Astatium & (210) \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\small
\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
\toprule
Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Physical State & Application/Source \\
\midrule
F$_2$ & -219.6 & -188.1 & Pale yellow gas & Toothpaste, Teflon \\
Cl$_2$ & -101.5 & -34.0 & Yellow-green gas & Disinfectant, PVC \\
Br$_2$ & -7.2 & 58.8 & Red-brown liquid & Flame retardants, dyes \\
I$_2$ & 113.7 & 184.3 & Purple-black solid & Disinfectant, photography \\
At$_2$ & 302 & 337 & Solid (radioactive) & No practical use \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}

\textbf{Chlorine (Cl$_2$):} Electrolysis of brine (chlor-alkali process): \ce{2NaCl + 2H2O ->[electrolysis] Cl2 ^ + H2 ^ + 2NaOH}

Laboratory: Oxidation of HCl: \ce{MnO2 + 4HCl ->[heat] MnCl2 + Cl2 ^ + 2H2O}

\textbf{Bromine (Br$_2$):} Oxidation of bromide in seawater: \ce{2Br- + Cl2 -> Br2 + 2Cl-}

\textbf{Iodine (I$_2$):} Oxidation of iodide from brine or seaweed: \ce{2I- + Cl2 -> I2 + 2Cl-}

Or from Chile saltpeter: \ce{2NaIO3 + 5NaHSO3 -> I2 + 3NaHSO4 + 2Na2SO4 + H2O}

\textbf{Fluorine (F$_2$):} Electrolysis of KF in anhydrous HF: \ce{2HF ->[electrolysis] H2 + F2 ^}

\subsection{Noble gases}

\subsubsection{Elements}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
\toprule
Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
\midrule
2 & He & Helium & Helium & 4.00 \\
10 & Ne & Neon & Neon & 20.18 \\
18 & Ar & Argon & Argon & 39.95 \\
36 & Kr & Krypton & Krypton & 83.80 \\
54 & Xe & Xenon & Xenon & 131.29 \\
86 & Rn & Radon & Radon & (222) \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\small
\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
\toprule
Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Physical State & Application/Source \\
\midrule
He & -272.2 & -268.9 & Colorless gas & Balloons, cryogenics \\
Ne & -248.6 & -246.0 & Colorless gas & Neon signs, lasers \\
Ar & -189.3 & -185.8 & Colorless gas & Welding, light bulbs \\
Kr & -157.4 & -153.2 & Colorless gas & Flash lamps, lasers \\
Xe & -111.8 & -108.1 & Colorless gas & Anesthesia, ion drives \\
Rn & -71 & -61.7 & Colorless gas & Radioactive tracer \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Preparation}

Noble gases are obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air (except He and Rn).

\textbf{Helium (He):} Extracted from natural gas wells.

\textbf{Radon (Rn):} Decay product of radium, collected from uranium/thorium ores.

\subsection{Other Nonmetals}

\subsubsection{Elements}

\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
\toprule
Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
\midrule
1 & H & Hydrogen & Hydrogenium & 1.008 \\
6 & C & Carbon & Carboneum & 12.01 \\
7 & N & Nitrogen & Nitrogenium & 14.01 \\
8 & O & Oxygen & Oxygenium & 16.00 \\
15 & P & Phosphorus & Phosphorus & 30.97 \\
16 & S & Sulfur & Sulfur & 32.07 \\
34 & Se & Selenium & Selenium & 78.96 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}

\begin{longtable}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.3cm}p{4.3cm}}
\toprule
Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Form/Structure & Application/Source \\
\midrule
\endfirsthead
\toprule
Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Form/Structure & Application/Source \\
\midrule
\endhead
H$_2$ & -259.2 & -252.9 & Colorless gas & Fuel, ammonia synthesis \\
C (graphite) & 3825 & 4827 (subl.) & Hexagonal layers & Pencils, electrodes \\
C (diamond) & 3550 & --- & Cubic crystal & Jewelry, cutting tools \\
C (fullerene) & --- & --- & Molecular cage & Research, electronics \\
N$_2$ & -210.0 & -195.8 & Colorless gas & Fertilizers, inert atm. \\
O$_2$ & -218.8 & -183.0 & Colorless gas & Respiration, combustion \\
O$_3$ (ozone) & -192.5 & -112.0 & Blue gas & Sterilization, UV shield \\
P (white) & 44.2 & 280 & Molecular solid & Incendiaries, match \\
P (red) & 590 & 431 (subl.) & Amorphous & Safety matches \\
P (black) & --- & --- & Layered & Research \\
S (rhombic) & 115.2 & 444.6 & Orthorhombic & Sulfuric acid, vulcanize \\
S (monoclinic) & 119 & 444.6 & Monoclinic & Allotrope of sulfur \\
Se (gray) & 221 & 685 & Hexagonal & Photocells, glass \\
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}

\textbf{Hydrogen (H$_2$):} 
\begin{itemize}
\item Steam reforming of methane: \ce{CH4 + H2O <=>[catalyst][high T] CO + 3H2}
\item Electrolysis of water: \ce{2H2O ->[electrolysis] 2H2 ^ + O2 ^}
\item Laboratory: Reaction of metals with acids: \ce{Zn + 2HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2 ^}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Oxygen (O$_2$):} 
\begin{itemize}
\item Fractional distillation of liquid air
\item Electrolysis of water: \ce{2H2O ->[electrolysis] 2H2 ^ + O2 ^}
\item Laboratory: Decomposition of KMnO$_4$: \ce{2KMnO4 ->[heat] K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2 ^}
\item Or: \ce{2KClO3 ->[MnO2, heat] 2KCl + 3O2 ^}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Nitrogen (N$_2$):} Fractional distillation of liquid air

\textbf{Chlorine (Cl$_2$):} See Halogen section

\textbf{Sulfur (S):} 
\begin{itemize}
\item Frasch process: Melting underground sulfur with superheated water
\item Recovered from petroleum refining and natural gas processing
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Phosphorus (P):} Reduction of phosphate rock with coke and silica: 

\ce{2Ca3(PO4)2 + 6SiO2 + 10C ->[high T] 6CaSiO3 + 10CO ^ + P4 ^}

\section{Acids and bases ions}

\subsection{Hydrogen halides}

\subsubsection{Hydrofluoric acid}

\textbf{HF} (Hydrofluoric acid, Hydrogen fluoride)

\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid in aqueous solution (unlike other hydrogen halides), can dissolve glass.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Etching glass: \ce{SiO2 + 4HF -> SiF4 ^ + 2H2O}
\item With calcium: \ce{Ca + 2HF -> CaF2 + H2 ^}
\item Formation of hexafluorosilicate: \ce{SiO2 + 6HF -> H2SiF6 + 2H2O}
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Hydrochloric acid}

\textbf{HCl} (Hydrochloric acid, Hydrogen chloride)

\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, colorless gas, forms white fumes in moist air.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Oxidation by manganese dioxide: \ce{MnO2 + 4HCl ->[heat] MnCl2 + Cl2 ^ + 2H2O}
\item With ammonia: \ce{NH3 + HCl -> NH4Cl} (white smoke)
\item Dissolving metals: \ce{Fe + 2HCl -> FeCl2 + H2 ^}
\item With permanganate: \ce{2KMnO4 + 16HCl -> 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 ^ + 8H2O}
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Hydrobromic acid}

\textbf{HBr} (Hydrobromic acid, Hydrogen bromide)

\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, stronger reducing agent than HCl.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Oxidation by sulfuric acid: \ce{2HBr + H2SO4 -> Br2 + SO2 + 2H2O}
\item With silver nitrate: \ce{HBr + AgNO3 -> AgBr v + HNO3} (pale yellow precipitate)
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Hydroiodic acid}

\textbf{HI} (Hydroiodic acid, Hydrogen iodide)

\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strongest reducing agent among hydrogen halides.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Oxidation by sulfuric acid: \ce{8HI + H2SO4 -> 4I2 + H2S + 4H2O}
\item Reduction of Fe(III): \ce{2Fe^3+ + 2I- -> 2Fe^2+ + I2}
\item With chlorine: \ce{2HI + Cl2 -> 2HCl + I2}
\end{itemize}

\subsection{Oxyacid}

\subsubsection{Nitrogen oxyacids}

\textbf{HNO$_2$} (Nitrous acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-N=O}

\textbf{Valence:} N is +3

\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, unstable, exists only in solution.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Decomposition: \ce{3HNO2 -> HNO3 + 2NO ^ + H2O}
\item Oxidation of iodide: \ce{2HNO2 + 2HI -> I2 + 2NO ^ + 2H2O}
\item Reduction by reducing agents: \ce{2HNO2 + 2HI -> 2NO ^ + I2 + 2H2O}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{HNO$_3$} (Nitric acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]N(=[2]O)(=[:-30]O)}

\textbf{Valence:} N is +5

\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strong oxidizing agent.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item With copper: \ce{3Cu + 8HNO3(dilute) -> 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO ^ + 4H2O}
\item Concentrated with copper: \ce{Cu + 4HNO3(conc.) -> Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 ^ + 2H2O}
\item Nitration reaction: \ce{C6H6 + HNO3 ->[H2SO4] C6H5NO2 + H2O}
\item With phosphorus: \ce{P4 + 20HNO3 -> 4H3PO4 + 20NO2 ^ + 4H2O}
\item Passivation of iron: \ce{Fe + 6HNO3(conc.) -> Fe^3+ (passive layer)}
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Sulfur oxyacids}

\textbf{H$_2$SO$_3$} (Sulfurous acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]S(=[2]O)(-[:-30]OH)}

\textbf{Valence:} S is +4

\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, exists only in solution, reducing agent.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Oxidation by oxygen: \ce{2H2SO3 + O2 -> 2H2SO4}
\item Reduction by hydrogen sulfide: \ce{H2SO3 + 2H2S -> 3S v + 3H2O}
\item With bromine: \ce{H2SO3 + Br2 + H2O -> H2SO4 + 2HBr}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{H$_2$SO$_4$} (Sulfuric acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{S(=[2]O)(=[:200]O)(<[:300]OH)(<:[:-20]OH)}

\textbf{Valence:} S is +6

\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strong dehydrating agent, strong oxidizing agent (concentrated).

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item With carbon (dehydration): \ce{C12H22O11 ->[H2SO4(conc.)] 12C + 11H2O}
\item Hot concentrated with copper: \ce{Cu + 2H2SO4(conc.) ->[heat] CuSO4 + SO2 ^ + 2H2O}
\item With NaCl (making HCl): \ce{NaCl + H2SO4 ->[heat] NaHSO4 + HCl ^}
\item Esterification: \ce{CH3COOH + C2H5OH <=>[H2SO4] CH3COOC2H5 + H2O}
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Phosphorus oxyacids}

\textbf{H$_3$PO$_3$} (Phosphorous acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-[:30]P(=[2]O)(<[:300]OH)(<:[:-20]OH)}

\textbf{Valence:} P is +3

\textbf{Properties:} Dibasic acid (only 2 acidic H), reducing agent.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Reduction of silver nitrate: \ce{H3PO3 + 2AgNO3 + H2O -> H3PO4 + 2Ag v + 2HNO3}
\item Disproportionation: \ce{4H3PO3 ->[heat] 3H3PO4 + PH3 ^}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{H$_3$PO$_4$} (Phosphoric acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]P(=[2]O)(<[:300]OH)(<:[:-20]OH)}

\textbf{Valence:} P is +5

\textbf{Properties:} Weak tribasic acid, non-oxidizing.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Dehydration to pyrophosphoric acid: \ce{2H3PO4 ->[heat] H4P2O7 + H2O}
\item With ammonia: \ce{H3PO4 + NH3 -> NH4H2PO4}
\item Esterification: \ce{H3PO4 + 3C2H5OH -> (C2H5O)3PO + 3H2O}
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Chlorine oxyacids}

\textbf{HClO} (Hypochlorous acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-Cl}

\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +1

\textbf{Properties:} Very weak acid, strong oxidizing agent, unstable.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Disproportionation: \ce{3HClO -> HClO3 + 2HCl}
\item Oxidation: \ce{HClO + H2S -> HCl + S v + H2O}
\item Bleaching: \ce{HClO + [dye] -> [oxidized dye] (colorless)}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{HClO$_2$} (Chlorous acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]Cl(=[2]O)}

\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +3

\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, unstable, exists only in solution.

\textbf{HClO$_3$} (Chloric acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]Cl(=[2]O)(=[:-30]O)}

\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +5

\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strong oxidizing agent.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Oxidation of sulfur: \ce{3S + 6HClO3 -> 3H2SO4 + 3Cl2 ^}
\item Decomposition: \ce{8HClO3 -> 4Cl2 ^ + 6O2 ^ + 4H2O}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{HClO$_4$} (Perchloric acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]Cl(=[2]O)(=[:300]O)(=[:-20]O)}

\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +7

\textbf{Properties:} Very strong acid, strongest common acid, powerful oxidizing agent when hot/concentrated.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Oxidation of organic compounds: \ce{C6H12O6 + 24HClO4 ->[heat] 6CO2 ^ + 12Cl2 ^ + 18H2O}
\item With metals: \ce{Mg + 2HClO4 -> Mg(ClO4)2 + H2 ^}
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Carbon oxyacids}

\textbf{H$_2$CO$_3$} (Carbonic acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]C(=[2]O)(-[:-30]OH)}

\textbf{Valence:} C is +4

\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, unstable, exists in equilibrium with CO$_2$ and H$_2$O.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Decomposition: \ce{H2CO3 <=> CO2 ^ + H2O}
\item With ammonia: \ce{H2CO3 + 2NH3 -> (NH4)2CO3}
\item Formation: \ce{CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3}
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Bromine and iodine oxyacids}

\textbf{HBrO} (Hypobromous acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-Br}

\textbf{Valence:} Br is +1

\textbf{HBrO$_3$} (Bromic acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]Br(=[2]O)(-[:-30]O)}

\textbf{Valence:} Br is +5

\textbf{HIO$_3$} (Iodic acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]I(=[2]O)(-[:-30]O)}

\textbf{Valence:} I is +5

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Oxidation: \ce{5HI + HIO3 -> 3I2 + 3H2O}
\item With sulfur dioxide: \ce{HIO3 + 3H2SO3 -> HI + 3H2SO4}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{H$_5$IO$_6$} (Periodic acid)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{I(=[2]O)(<:[:30]OH)(<[:-30]OH)(<:[:150]OH)(<[:210]OH)(-[:270]OH)}

\textbf{Valence:} I is +7

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Oxidative cleavage of diols: Used to cleave vicinal diols (glycols) to aldehydes or ketones
\end{itemize}

\subsection{Bases from metal oxides}

\subsubsection{Alkali metal hydroxides}

\textbf{NaOH} (Sodium hydroxide, Caustic soda, Lye)

\textbf{Valence:} Na is +1

\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, deliquescent, corrosive.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item With aluminum (amphoteric): \ce{2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O -> 2NaAlO2 + 3H2 ^}
\item With silicon dioxide: \ce{SiO2 + 2NaOH ->[heat] Na2SiO3 + H2O}
\item Saponification of esters: \ce{CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH -> CH3COONa + C2H5OH}
\item With chlorine (disproportionation): \ce{Cl2 + 2NaOH -> NaCl + NaClO + H2O}
\item With sulfur: \ce{3S + 6NaOH ->[heat] 2Na2S + Na2SO3 + 3H2O}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{KOH} (Potassium hydroxide, Caustic potash)

\textbf{Valence:} K is +1

\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, more hygroscopic than NaOH.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item With CO$_2$: \ce{2KOH + CO2 -> K2CO3 + H2O}
\item Excess CO$_2$: \ce{K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O -> 2KHCO3}
\item With haloalkanes (elimination): \ce{C2H5Br + KOH ->[alcohol] C2H4 ^ + KBr + H2O}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{LiOH} (Lithium hydroxide)

\textbf{Valence:} Li is +1

\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, used in CO$_2$ scrubbers.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item CO$_2$ absorption: \ce{2LiOH + CO2 -> Li2CO3 + H2O}
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Alkaline earth metal hydroxides}

\textbf{Ca(OH)$_2$} (Calcium hydroxide, Slaked lime, Hydrated lime)

\textbf{Valence:} Ca is +2

\textbf{Properties:} Moderately strong base, sparingly soluble in water (lime water).

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item With CO$_2$ (limewater test): \ce{Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 v + H2O}
\item Excess CO$_2$: \ce{CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O -> Ca(HCO3)2} (soluble)
\item With chlorine: \ce{2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2 -> CaCl2 + Ca(ClO)2 + 2H2O}
\item Preparation from quicklime: \ce{CaO + H2O -> Ca(OH)2} (exothermic)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Mg(OH)$_2$} (Magnesium hydroxide, Milk of magnesia)

\textbf{Valence:} Mg is +2

\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, very sparingly soluble, antacid.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Decomposition: \ce{Mg(OH)2 ->[heat] MgO + H2O}
\item With acids (antacid action): \ce{Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl -> MgCl2 + 2H2O}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Ba(OH)$_2$} (Barium hydroxide)

\textbf{Valence:} Ba is +2

\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, more soluble than Ca(OH)$_2$.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item With sulfuric acid: \ce{Ba(OH)2 + H2SO4 -> BaSO4 v + 2H2O}
\item With ammonium salts (endothermic): \ce{Ba(OH)2.8H2O + 2NH4Cl -> BaCl2 + 2NH3 ^ + 10H2O}
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Ammonia and related bases}

\textbf{NH$_3$} (Ammonia)

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{N(-[:90]H)(-[:210]H)(-[:330]H)}

\textbf{Valence:} N is -3

\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, pungent gas, very soluble in water.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Complex formation with Cu$^{2+}$: \ce{Cu^2+ + 4NH3 -> [Cu(NH3)4]^2+} (deep blue)
\item With HCl: \ce{NH3 + HCl -> NH4Cl} (white smoke)
\item Haber process: \ce{N2 + 3H2 <=>[Fe catalyst][high T, P] 2NH3}
\item Oxidation by oxygen: \ce{4NH3 + 5O2 ->[Pt catalyst] 4NO + 6H2O} (Ostwald process)
\item With chlorine: \ce{2NH3 + 3Cl2 -> N2 + 6HCl}
\item Reduction of CuO: \ce{3CuO + 2NH3 ->[heat] 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{NH$_4$OH} (Ammonium hydroxide)

\textbf{Formula:} NH$_4^+$ and OH$^-$ ions in aqueous solution

\textbf{Valence:} N is -3

\textbf{Properties:} Aqueous ammonia solution, weak base.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Precipitation of metal hydroxides: \ce{Fe^3+ + 3NH4OH -> Fe(OH)3 v + 3NH4+}
\item With excess ammonia (complex formation): \ce{Zn(OH)2 + 4NH3 -> [Zn(NH3)4]^2+ + 2OH-}
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Transition metal hydroxides}

\textbf{Fe(OH)$_2$} (Iron(II) hydroxide, Ferrous hydroxide)

\textbf{Valence:} Fe is +2

\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, white-green solid, easily oxidized.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Oxidation: \ce{4Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O -> 4Fe(OH)3} (turns brown)
\item Decomposition: \ce{Fe(OH)2 ->[heat] FeO + H2O}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Fe(OH)$_3$} (Iron(III) hydroxide, Ferric hydroxide)

\textbf{Valence:} Fe is +3

\textbf{Properties:} Very weak base, brown precipitate.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Decomposition: \ce{2Fe(OH)3 ->[heat] Fe2O3 + 3H2O}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Al(OH)$_3$} (Aluminum hydroxide)

\textbf{Valence:} Al is +3

\textbf{Properties:} Amphoteric, white precipitate, antacid.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item With acid: \ce{Al(OH)3 + 3HCl -> AlCl3 + 3H2O}
\item With base: \ce{Al(OH)3 + NaOH -> NaAlO2 + 2H2O}
\item Decomposition: \ce{2Al(OH)3 ->[heat] Al2O3 + 3H2O}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Cu(OH)$_2$} (Copper(II) hydroxide, Cupric hydroxide)

\textbf{Valence:} Cu is +2

\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, blue precipitate.

\textbf{Reactions:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Decomposition: \ce{Cu(OH)2 ->[heat] CuO + H2O}
\item With ammonia: \ce{Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3 -> [Cu(NH3)4]^2+ + 2OH-} (deep blue solution)
\item With tartaric acid (Fehling's reagent): Forms copper tartrate complex
\end{itemize}

\section{Ores and alloys}

\subsection{Ores}

\begin{longtable}{p{3cm}p{6cm}p{3.5cm}}
\toprule
English Name & Properties & Formula \\
\midrule
\endfirsthead
\toprule
English Name & Properties & Formula \\
\midrule
\endhead
Hematite & Red-brown iron ore, most important iron ore & \ce{Fe2O3} \\
Magnetite & Black magnetic iron ore, high iron content & \ce{Fe3O4} \\
Limonite & Yellow-brown hydrated iron oxide & \ce{2Fe2O3.3H2O} \\
Siderite & Iron carbonate, light colored & \ce{FeCO3} \\
Pyrite & Brass-yellow, fool's gold, used for sulfuric acid & \ce{FeS2} \\
Chalcopyrite & Brass-yellow copper ore, most abundant copper ore & \ce{CuFeS2} \\
Chalcocite & Dark gray copper sulfide & \ce{Cu2S} \\
Malachite & Green basic copper carbonate & \ce{Cu2CO3(OH)2} \\
Azurite & Blue basic copper carbonate & \ce{Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2} \\
Cuprite & Red copper oxide & \ce{Cu2O} \\
Bauxite & Reddish aluminum ore, clay-like & \ce{Al2O3.nH2O} \\
Cryolite & White, used as flux in aluminum production & \ce{Na3AlF6} \\
Corundum & Very hard aluminum oxide, includes ruby/sapphire & \ce{Al2O3} \\
Galena & Lead-gray, cubic crystals, main lead ore & \ce{PbS} \\
Cerussite & White lead carbonate & \ce{PbCO3} \\
Anglesite & White lead sulfate & \ce{PbSO4} \\
Sphalerite (Zinc blende) & Yellow-brown to black, main zinc ore & \ce{ZnS} \\
Smithsonite & White zinc carbonate & \ce{ZnCO3} \\
Zincite & Red-orange zinc oxide & \ce{ZnO} \\
Cassiterite & Brown-black tin oxide, main tin ore & \ce{SnO2} \\
Cinnabar & Bright red mercury sulfide, main mercury ore & \ce{HgS} \\
Argentite & Dark gray silver sulfide & \ce{Ag2S} \\
Calamine & Zinc silicate ore & \ce{Zn4Si2O7(OH)2.H2O} \\
Chromite & Black chromium iron oxide, main chromium ore & \ce{FeCr2O4} \\
Pyrolusite & Black manganese dioxide ore & \ce{MnO2} \\
Rhodochrosite & Pink manganese carbonate & \ce{MnCO3} \\
Rutile & Red-brown titanium dioxide & \ce{TiO2} \\
Ilmenite & Black iron titanium oxide & \ce{FeTiO3} \\
Barite & White barium sulfate, heavy & \ce{BaSO4} \\
Witherite & White barium carbonate & \ce{BaCO3} \\
Scheelite & White tungsten calcium ore & \ce{CaWO4} \\
Wolframite & Black iron manganese tungsten ore & \ce{(Fe,Mn)WO4} \\
Molybdenite & Gray, soft molybdenum sulfide & \ce{MoS2} \\
Carnallite & White-red potassium magnesium salt & \ce{KCl.MgCl2.6H2O} \\
Sylvite & White-red potassium chloride & \ce{KCl} \\
Halite (Rock salt) & Transparent-white sodium chloride & \ce{NaCl} \\
Fluorite (Fluorspar) & Colorful calcium fluoride & \ce{CaF2} \\
Limestone & White-gray calcium carbonate sedimentary rock & \ce{CaCO3} \\
Dolomite & White-pink calcium magnesium carbonate & \ce{CaMg(CO3)2} \\
Gypsum & White calcium sulfate dihydrate & \ce{CaSO4.2H2O} \\
Anhydrite & White calcium sulfate & \ce{CaSO4} \\
Apatite & Green-blue calcium phosphate & \ce{Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)} \\
Phosphorite & Gray-brown calcium phosphate rock & \ce{Ca3(PO4)2} \\
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\subsection{Alloys}

\begin{longtable}{p{2.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{4.5cm}p{3cm}}
\toprule
English Name & Elements & Properties & Application \\
\midrule
\endfirsthead
\toprule
English Name & Elements & Properties & Application \\
\midrule
\endhead
Steel & Fe, C (< 2\%) & Strong, hard, malleable & Construction, tools \\
Stainless steel & Fe, Cr (10-20\%), Ni & Corrosion-resistant, strong & Cutlery, medical \\
Cast iron & Fe, C (2-4\%) & Brittle, hard, good casting & Engine blocks, pipes \\
Brass & Cu (55-95\%), Zn & Golden, corrosion-resistant & Musical instruments, fittings \\
Bronze & Cu (88\%), Sn (12\%) & Hard, corrosion-resistant & Sculptures, bearings \\
Aluminum bronze & Cu, Al (5-11\%) & Strong, corrosion-resistant & Marine hardware, coins \\
Cupronickel & Cu (75\%), Ni (25\%) & Silver-colored, corrosion-resistant & Coins, marine uses \\
German silver & Cu, Ni, Zn & Silver-white, no silver & Cutlery, jewelry base \\
Phosphor bronze & Cu, Sn, P & Elastic, wear-resistant & Springs, electrical \\
Gunmetal & Cu, Sn (10\%), Zn (2\%) & Corrosion-resistant, tough & Gears, bearings \\
Duralumin & Al (94\%), Cu (4\%), Mg & Light, strong, age-hardenable & Aircraft, aerospace \\
Magnalium & Al (70-95\%), Mg & Very light, strong & Aircraft parts \\
Alnico & Al, Ni, Co, Fe & Strong magnetic & Permanent magnets \\
Solder & Sn (60\%), Pb (40\%) & Low melting point & Electrical joints \\
Lead-free solder & Sn, Cu, Ag & Low melting, no lead toxicity & Electronics \\
Pewter & Sn (85-99\%), Sb, Cu & Soft, silvery, malleable & Decorative items \\
Babbitt metal & Sn, Sb, Cu & Low friction, soft & Bearing surfaces \\
Type metal & Pb, Sn, Sb & Expands on cooling & Printing type \\
Wood's metal & Bi, Pb, Sn, Cd & Very low melting (70°C) & Fire sprinklers, fuses \\
Rose's metal & Bi, Pb, Sn & Low melting (98°C) & Fusible alloys \\
Nichrome & Ni (80\%), Cr (20\%) & High electrical resistance, heat-resistant & Heating elements \\
Monel metal & Ni (67\%), Cu (30\%) & Corrosion-resistant, strong & Marine, chemical \\
Invar & Fe (64\%), Ni (36\%) & Very low thermal expansion & Precision instruments \\
Permalloy & Fe (20\%), Ni (80\%) & High magnetic permeability & Transformers, sensors \\
Constantan & Cu (55\%), Ni (45\%) & Constant electrical resistance & Thermocouples \\
Manganin & Cu (86\%), Mn (12\%), Ni & Stable resistance vs. temperature & Precision resistors \\
Stellite & Co, Cr, W, C & Very hard, wear-resistant & Cutting tools \\
Hastelloy & Ni, Mo, Cr, Fe & Excellent corrosion resistance & Chemical equipment \\
Titanium alloy & Ti (90\%), Al (6\%), V (4\%) & High strength-to-weight ratio & Aerospace, implants \\
Amalgam & Hg, Ag, Sn, Cu & Soft, hardens over time & Dental fillings \\
Elektron & Mg (90\%), Al, Zn & Extremely light & Aircraft parts \\
Beryllium copper & Cu (98\%), Be (2\%) & Non-sparking, elastic & Explosion-proof tools \\
White gold & Au, Ni/Pd, Zn & White-silver appearance & Jewelry \\
Rose gold & Au (75\%), Cu (22.5\%), Ag & Pink-red color & Jewelry \\
Sterling silver & Ag (92.5\%), Cu (7.5\%) & Harder than pure silver & Jewelry, tableware \\
Britannia silver & Ag (95.8\%), Cu & Softer, higher silver content & High-end silverware \\
Nitinol & Ni (55\%), Ti (45\%) & Shape memory effect & Medical devices, actuators \\
Zamak & Zn, Al, Mg, Cu & Good castability, moderate strength & Die castings \\
Babbitt & Sn, Sb, Cu (or Pb base) & Low friction, good embeddability & Bearings \\
Bell metal & Cu (78\%), Sn (22\%) & Resonant, hard & Bells, cymbals \\
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\section{Reactions}

\section{Hydrocarbons and their Halogen derivatives}

\section{Alicyclic compounds and aromatic compounds}

\section{Alcohol, phenols, ketones and aldehyde}

\section{Carboxylic acids and esters}

\section{Amines, amides and nitriles}

\section{Thiols and thioethers}

\section{Macromolecule}

\section{Plastics}

\section{Organic compounds in everyday life}

\end{document}

