\section{Name of organic compounds}

\subsection{Hydrocarbons and their Halogen derivatives}

\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3cm}p{7cm}}
\toprule
Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endfirsthead
\toprule
Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endhead
Methane & \ce{CH4} & Natural gas, simplest alkane \\
Ethane & \ce{C2H6} & Component of natural gas \\
Propane & \ce{C3H8} & LPG fuel, refrigerant \\
Butane & \ce{C4H10} & Lighter fuel, aerosol propellant \\
Isobutane & \ce{(CH3)3CH} & Branched isomer of butane, refrigerant \\
Pentane & \ce{C5H12} & Laboratory solvent \\
Hexane & \ce{C6H14} & Extraction solvent \\
Octane & \ce{C8H18} & Gasoline component \\
Paraffin & \ce{C_nH_{2n+2}} & Wax, candles (long chain alkanes) \\
Ethylene & \ce{C2H4} & Fruit ripening agent, plastic production \\
Propylene & \ce{C3H6} & Polypropylene production \\
Acetylene & \ce{C2H2} & Welding gas, illumination \\
Isoprene & \ce{C5H8} & Natural rubber monomer \\
Methyl chloride & \ce{CH3Cl} & Refrigerant, methylating agent \\
Chloroform & \ce{CHCl3} & Solvent, formerly anesthetic \\
Carbon tetrachloride & \ce{CCl4} & Solvent, fire extinguisher (obsolete) \\
Freon-12 & \ce{CCl2F2} & Refrigerant (CFC, now banned) \\
Teflon monomer & \ce{CF2=CF2} & Tetrafluoroethylene, non-stick coating \\
DDT & \ce{(ClC6H4)2CHCCl3} & Insecticide (banned in many countries) \\
Vinyl chloride & \ce{CH2=CHCl} & PVC plastic monomer \\
Methylene chloride & \ce{CH2Cl2} & Paint stripper, degreaser \\
Bromoform & \ce{CHBr3} & Laboratory reagent, formerly sedative \\
Iodoform & \ce{CHI3} & Antiseptic (yellow crystalline) \\
Ethyl bromide & \ce{C2H5Br} & Local anesthetic, refrigerant \\
Methyl iodide & \ce{CH3I} & Methylating agent in synthesis \\
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\subsection{Alicyclic compounds and aromatic compounds}

\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3cm}p{7cm}}
\toprule
Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endfirsthead
\toprule
Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endhead
Cyclopropane & \ce{C3H6} & Anesthetic (cyclic alkane) \\
Cyclohexane & \ce{C6H12} & Solvent, nylon precursor \\
Benzene & \ce{C6H6} & Aromatic solvent, carcinogenic \\
Toluene & \ce{C6H5CH3} & Solvent, paint thinner, TNT precursor \\
Xylene & \ce{C6H4(CH3)2} & Solvent, histology (three isomers) \\
Styrene & \ce{C6H5CH=CH2} & Polystyrene monomer, plastic foam \\
Cumene & \ce{C6H5CH(CH3)2} & Phenol production, isopropylbenzene \\
Naphthalene & \ce{C10H8} & Mothballs, formerly used in lighting \\
Anthracene & \ce{C14H10} & Dye production, organic semiconductor \\
Phenanthrene & \ce{C14H10} & PAH compound, synthesis precursor \\
Biphenyl & \ce{C6H5-C6H5} & Heat transfer fluid, citrus preservative \\
TNT & \ce{C6H2(NO2)3CH3} & Explosive (trinitrotoluene) \\
Picric acid & \ce{C6H2(NO2)3OH} & Explosive, yellow dye \\
Aniline & \ce{C6H5NH2} & Dye production, rubber processing \\
Nitrobenzene & \ce{C6H5NO2} & Aniline precursor, shoe polish odor \\
Benzyl chloride & \ce{C6H5CH2Cl} & Synthesis intermediate, lachrymator \\
Chlorobenzene & \ce{C6H5Cl} & Solvent, DDT production \\
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\subsection{Alcohol, phenols, ketones and aldehyde}

\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{6.5cm}}
\toprule
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endfirsthead
\toprule
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endhead
Methanol & \ce{CH3OH} & Wood alcohol, fuel, toxic \\
Ethanol & \ce{C2H5OH} & Drinking alcohol, solvent, fuel \\
Isopropanol & \ce{(CH3)2CHOH} & Rubbing alcohol, disinfectant \\
Butanol & \ce{C4H9OH} & Solvent, plasticizer \\
Ethylene glycol & \ce{HOCH2CH2OH} & Antifreeze, polyester precursor \\
Phenol & \ce{C6H5OH} & Disinfectant, plastic precursor, caustic \\
Cresol & \ce{CH3C6H4OH} & Disinfectant, wood preservative \\
Resorcinol & \ce{C6H4(OH)2} & Adhesives, dyes, antiseptic \\
Hydroquinone & \ce{C6H4(OH)2} & Photo developer, skin lightener \\
Catechol & \ce{C6H4(OH)2} & Antioxidant, photo developer \\
Formaldehyde & \ce{HCHO} & Preservative, disinfectant, resin \\
Acetaldehyde & \ce{CH3CHO} & Acetic acid precursor, flavor \\
Benzaldehyde & \ce{C6H5CHO} & Almond odor, flavoring \\
Acetone & \ce{CH3COCH3} & Nail polish remover, solvent \\
Methyl ethyl ketone & \ce{CH3COC2H5} & Paint remover, MEK solvent \\
Camphor & \ce{C10H16O} & Medicinal, moth repellent, plasticizer \\
Vanillin & \ce{C8H8O3} & Vanilla flavoring from vanilla beans \\
Cinnamaldehyde & \ce{C6H5CH=CHCHO} & Cinnamon flavor and odor \\
Menthol & \ce{C10H20O} & Cooling sensation, mint flavor \\
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\subsection{Carboxylic acids and esters}

\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{6.5cm}}
\toprule
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endfirsthead
\toprule
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endhead
Formic acid & \ce{HCOOH} & Ant venom, leather tanning, antibacterial \\
Acetic acid & \ce{CH3COOH} & Vinegar (5\%), food preservative, solvent \\
Propionic acid & \ce{C2H5COOH} & Food preservative, mold inhibitor \\
Butyric acid & \ce{C3H7COOH} & Rancid butter odor, flavoring \\
Valeric acid & \ce{C4H9COOH} & Unpleasant odor, pharmaceutical intermediate \\
Caproic acid & \ce{C5H11COOH} & Goat odor, flavoring agent \\
Palmitic acid & \ce{C15H31COOH} & Palm oil, soap making, saturated fat \\
Stearic acid & \ce{C17H35COOH} & Candles, soap, cosmetics, saturated fat \\
Oleic acid & \ce{C17H33COOH} & Olive oil, unsaturated fatty acid \\
Linoleic acid & \ce{C17H31COOH} & Essential fatty acid, polyunsaturated \\
Oxalic acid & \ce{HOOC-COOH} & Rust remover, toxic (kidney stones) \\
Malonic acid & \ce{HOOC-CH2-COOH} & Synthesis intermediate, barbiturate precursor \\
Citric acid & \ce{C6H8O7} & Citrus fruits, food acidulant, chelator \\
Tartaric acid & \ce{C4H6O6} & Grapes, baking powder, wine making \\
Malic acid & \ce{C4H6O5} & Apples, sour taste in fruits \\
Lactic acid & \ce{CH3CH(OH)COOH} & Sour milk, muscle fatigue, fermentation \\
Benzoic acid & \ce{C6H5COOH} & Food preservative, antifungal \\
Salicylic acid & \ce{C6H4(OH)COOH} & Aspirin precursor, acne treatment \\
Phthalic acid & \ce{C6H4(COOH)2} & Plasticizer, polyester resin \\
Methyl formate & \ce{HCOOCH3} & Fumigant, solvent, tobacco flavoring \\
Ethyl acetate & \ce{CH3COOC2H5} & Nail polish remover, fruity odor \\
Butyl acetate & \ce{CH3COOC4H9} & Banana oil, lacquer solvent \\
Methyl salicylate & \ce{C6H4(OH)COOCH3} & Wintergreen oil, muscle pain relief \\
Ethyl butyrate & \ce{C3H7COOC2H5} & Pineapple flavor, perfume \\
Amyl acetate & \ce{CH3COOC5H11} & Banana oil, pear flavor \\
Nitroglycerin & \ce{C3H5(ONO2)3} & Explosive, angina medication (vasodilator) \\
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\subsection{Amines, amides and nitriles}

\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{6.5cm}}
\toprule
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endfirsthead
\toprule
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endhead
Methylamine & \ce{CH3NH2} & Fishy odor, pharmaceutical intermediate \\
Ethylamine & \ce{C2H5NH2} & Solvent, dye intermediate \\
Dimethylamine & \ce{(CH3)2NH} & Leather tanning, rocket fuel component \\
Trimethylamine & \ce{(CH3)3N} & Fishy odor in spoiled fish \\
Aniline & \ce{C6H5NH2} & Dye production, rubber chemicals, toxic \\
Phenylethylamine & \ce{C6H5CH2CH2NH2} & Neurotransmitter, chocolate component \\
Pyridine & \ce{C5H5N} & Solvent, denaturant, unpleasant odor \\
Putrescine & \ce{H2N(CH2)4NH2} & Decaying flesh odor, diamine \\
Cadaverine & \ce{H2N(CH2)5NH2} & Corpse odor, diamine \\
Ethanolamine & \ce{HOCH2CH2NH2} & Detergent, gas scrubbing, emulsifier \\
Formamide & \ce{HCONH2} & Solvent, softener \\
Acetamide & \ce{CH3CONH2} & Plasticizer, solvent \\
Urea & \ce{(NH2)2CO} & Fertilizer, animal feed, cosmetics \\
Polyacrylamide & {[-\ce{CH2CH(CONH2)}-]$_n$} & Water treatment, gel electrophoresis \\
Paracetamol & \ce{CH3CONHC6H4OH} & Acetaminophen, pain reliever, fever reducer \\
Caffeine & \ce{C8H10N4O2} & Coffee stimulant, central nervous system \\
Nicotine & \ce{C10H14N2} & Tobacco alkaloid, highly addictive, toxic \\
Acetonitrile & \ce{CH3CN} & HPLC solvent, extraction \\
Acrylonitrile & \ce{CH2=CHCN} & Acrylic fiber, ABS plastic monomer \\
Adiponitrile & \ce{NC(CH2)4CN} & Nylon-66 precursor \\
Benzonitrile & \ce{C6H5CN} & Solvent, chemical intermediate \\
Hydrogen cyanide & \ce{HCN} & Extremely toxic gas, fumigant, gold extraction \\
Cyanamide & \ce{H2NCN} & Fertilizer, calcium cyanamide \\
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\subsection{Thiols and thioethers}

\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{6.5cm}}
\toprule
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endfirsthead
\toprule
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
\midrule
\endhead
Methanethiol & \ce{CH3SH} & Rotten cabbage odor, natural gas odorant \\
Ethanethiol & \ce{C2H5SH} & Skunk spray component, LPG odorant \\
Propanethiol & \ce{C3H7SH} & Onion lachrymator precursor \\
Butanethiol & \ce{C4H9SH} & Skunk secretion, extremely foul odor \\
Thiophenol & \ce{C6H5SH} & Extremely foul odor, chemical intermediate \\
Glutathione & \ce{C10H17N3O6S} & Antioxidant tripeptide, detoxification \\
Lipoic acid & \ce{C8H14O2S2} & Antioxidant, enzyme cofactor \\
Mercaptoethanol & \ce{HSCH2CH2OH} & Reducing agent in biochemistry \\
Allicin & \ce{C6H10OS2} & Garlic odor and flavor, antibiotic \\
Dimethyl sulfide & \ce{(CH3)2S} & Ocean smell, cabbage odor \\
Diethyl sulfide & \ce{(C2H5)2S} & Garlic-like odor, solvent \\
Mustard gas & \ce{(ClCH2CH2)2S} & Chemical warfare agent, extremely toxic \\
Dimethyl sulfoxide & \ce{(CH3)2SO} & DMSO, solvent, penetrates skin \\
Biotin & \ce{C10H16N2O3S} & Vitamin B7, coenzyme, hair/nail health \\
Thioacetone & \ce{(CH3)2CS} & Worst smell in history, evacuated city \\
Thiourea & \ce{(NH2)2CS} & Photography, textile processing \\
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\subsection{Organic compounds in everyday life}

\subsubsection{Carbohydrates and sugars}

\textbf{Glucose (\ce{C6H12O6})}

\textbf{Common name:} Blood sugar, dextrose, grape sugar

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{CHO-[:270]C(-[:180]OH)(-[:0]H)-[:270]C(-[:0]OH)(-[:180]H)-[:270]C(-[:180]OH)(-[:0]H)-[:270]C(-[:0]OH)(-[:180]H)-[:270]CH_2OH}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Most important monosaccharide in human metabolism
\item Exists as cyclic form (pyranose) in solution
\item Reducing sugar (positive Fehling's and Benedict's test)
\item Primary energy source for cellular respiration
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Occurrence:} Blood, fruits, honey, cornstarch hydrolysis

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Fructose (\ce{C6H12O6})}

\textbf{Common name:} Fruit sugar, levulose

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{CH_2OH-[:270]C(=[:180]O)-[:270]C(-[:0]OH)(-[:180]H)-[:270]C(-[:180]OH)(-[:0]H)-[:270]C(-[:0]OH)(-[:180]H)-[:270]CH_2OH}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Sweetest natural sugar
\item Ketose (ketone sugar) rather than aldose
\item Forms furanose ring in solution
\item Reducing sugar
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Occurrence:} Fruits, honey, high-fructose corn syrup

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Sucrose (\ce{C12H22O11})}

\textbf{Common name:} Table sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar

\textbf{Structure:} Disaccharide of glucose and fructose linked by $\alpha$(1$\to$2) glycosidic bond

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Non-reducing sugar (no free anomeric carbon)
\item Highly soluble in water
\item Hydrolyzes to glucose and fructose (invert sugar)
\item \ce{C12H22O11 + H2O ->[H+ or invertase] C6H12O6 (glucose) + C6H12O6 (fructose)}
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Occurrence:} Sugar cane, sugar beets, maple syrup

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Lactose (\ce{C12H22O11})}

\textbf{Common name:} Milk sugar

\textbf{Structure:} Disaccharide of glucose and galactose linked by $\beta$(1$\to$4) glycosidic bond

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Reducing sugar (free anomeric carbon on glucose)
\item Less sweet than sucrose
\item Hydrolyzed by lactase enzyme
\item Lactose intolerance results from lactase deficiency
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Occurrence:} Mammalian milk (cow milk: 4-5\%, human milk: 6-7\%)

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Maltose (\ce{C12H22O11})}

\textbf{Common name:} Malt sugar

\textbf{Structure:} Disaccharide of two glucose units linked by $\alpha$(1$\to$4) glycosidic bond

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Reducing sugar
\item Product of starch hydrolysis
\item Hydrolyzed by maltase enzyme
\item Important in brewing and bread making
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Occurrence:} Germinating grains, malt, partial starch digestion

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Starch (\ce{(C6H10O5)n})}

\textbf{Common name:} None (standard name)

\textbf{Structure:} Polymer of glucose units; mixture of amylose (linear, $\alpha$(1$\to$4) links) and amylopectin (branched, $\alpha$(1$\to$4) and $\alpha$(1$\to$6) links)

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Main storage polysaccharide in plants
\item Forms blue-black complex with iodine (diagnostic test)
\item Hydrolyzed by amylase enzymes
\item Insoluble in cold water, forms colloidal suspension in hot water
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Occurrence:} Potatoes, rice, wheat, corn, all plant tubers and seeds

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Cellulose (C$_6$H$_{10}$O$_5$)$_n$}

\textbf{Common name:} Plant fiber

\textbf{Structure:} Linear polymer of glucose units linked by $\beta$(1$\to$4) glycosidic bonds

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Most abundant organic compound on Earth
\item Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls
\item Not digestible by humans (lack cellulase enzyme)
\item Important dietary fiber
\item Strong hydrogen bonding between chains gives high tensile strength
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Occurrence:} Plant cell walls, cotton (95\% cellulose), wood (40-50\%)

\subsubsection{Lipids and fats}

\textbf{Fatty acids (General formula: \ce{CH3(CH2)nCOOH})}

\textbf{Common examples:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Palmitic acid (C$_{16}$H$_{32}$O$_2$): \chemfig{CH_3-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0]COOH}
\item Stearic acid (C$_{18}$H$_{36}$O$_2$): Saturated, 18-carbon chain
\item Oleic acid (C$_{18}$H$_{34}$O$_2$): Monounsaturated, one C=C double bond
\item Linoleic acid (C$_{18}$H$_{32}$O$_2$): Polyunsaturated, two C=C double bonds
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Saturated: All C-C single bonds, solid at room temperature
\item Unsaturated: Contains C=C double bonds, liquid at room temperature
\item Amphipathic: Hydrophobic tail, hydrophilic head
\end{itemize}

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Triglycerides (Fats and oils)}

\textbf{Common name:} Fat (solid), Oil (liquid)

\textbf{Structure:} Ester of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules

\chemfig{CH_2(-[:90]O-[:90]C(=[:150]O)-[:30]R_1)-[:270]CH(-[:0]O-[:0]C(=[:60]O)-[:300]R_2)-[:270]CH_2(-[:270]O-[:270]C(=[:210]O)-[:330]R_3)}

where \ce{R1}, \ce{R2}, \ce{R3} are long-chain fatty acid residues

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Energy storage molecules (9 kcal/g)
\item Fats (saturated): Solid at room temperature (animal fats: lard, butter)
\item Oils (unsaturated): Liquid at room temperature (vegetable oils: olive, corn, sunflower)
\item Hydrophobic, insoluble in water
\item Undergo saponification (base hydrolysis to form soap)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Saponification reaction:}

\ce{Fat + 3NaOH -> Glycerol + 3 Soap (sodium salt of fatty acid)}

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Phospholipids}

\textbf{Common name:} Cell membrane lipids

\textbf{Structure:} Similar to triglycerides but one fatty acid replaced by phosphate group

\textbf{Example - Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithin):}

\chemfig{CH_2(-[:90]O-[:90]C(=[:150]O)-[:30]R_1)-[:270]CH(-[:0]O-[:0]C(=[:60]O)-[:300]R_2)-[:270]CH_2(-[:270]O-[:270]P(=[:210]O)(-[:270]O^{-})(-[:330]O-[:330]CH_2-[:30]CH_2-[:330]N^{+}(CH_3)_3))}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Amphipathic molecules
\item Form lipid bilayer in cell membranes
\item Essential for membrane structure and function
\item Emulsifying agents
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Occurrence:} All cell membranes, egg yolk, soybeans

\subsubsection{Soaps and detergents}

\textbf{Soap}

\textbf{Common name:} Sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids

\textbf{Structure (example - sodium stearate):}

\chemfig{CH_3-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0]COO^{-}Na^{+}}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Amphipathic: Hydrophobic tail (C$_{12}$-C$_{18}$ chain), hydrophilic head (COO$^-$)
\item Forms micelles in water
\item Lowers surface tension
\item Ineffective in hard water (forms precipitate with Ca$^{2+}$, Mg$^{2+}$)
\item Basic in aqueous solution (pH 9-10)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Preparation:} Saponification of fats with strong base (NaOH or KOH)

\textbf{Mechanism of cleaning:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Hydrophobic tails dissolve in grease/oil
\item Hydrophilic heads face water
\item Forms emulsion allowing oil removal
\end{itemize}

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Detergents}

\textbf{Common name:} Synthetic soaps

\textbf{Types:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Anionic: Sodium alkyl sulfates (e.g., SDS, sodium dodecyl sulfate)
\item Cationic: Quaternary ammonium salts
\item Non-ionic: Polyethylene glycol derivatives
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Example - Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS):}

\chemfig{CH_3-[:0](CH_2)_{11}-[:0]O-[:0]S(=[:60]O)(=[:300]O)(-[:180]O^{-}Na^{+})}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Work in hard water (do not precipitate with Ca$^{2+}$, Mg$^{2+}$)
\item More effective than soaps in acidic conditions
\item Stronger cleaning action
\item Some are non-biodegradable (environmental concern)
\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Vitamins}

\textbf{Vitamin A (Retinol, \ce{C20H30O})}

\textbf{Common name:} Retinol, anti-xerophthalmia vitamin

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{CH_3-[:30](-[:90]CH_3)(-[:330]CH_3)-[:330]*6(-=-(-CH_3)=-=)-[:30]=[:330]-[:30]=[:330]-[:30]=[:330]-[:30]CH_2OH}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Fat-soluble vitamin
\item Important for vision (forms rhodopsin in retina)
\item Essential for growth, immune function, skin health
\item Deficiency: Night blindness, xerophthalmia (dry eyes)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Liver, fish oils, dairy products, carrots (as $\beta$-carotene precursor)

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid, \ce{C6H8O6})}

\textbf{Common name:} Ascorbic acid, anti-scurvy vitamin

\textbf{Structure:} 

\chemfig{HO-[:30]*5(-(=O)-O-(-[:90]OH)=(-[:270]OH)-)(-[:270]CH(-[:330]OH)-[:270]CH_2OH)}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Water-soluble vitamin
\item Powerful antioxidant
\item Essential for collagen synthesis
\item Enhances iron absorption
\item Easily oxidized (degraded by heat, light, air)
\item Deficiency: Scurvy (bleeding gums, poor wound healing)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Citrus fruits, strawberries, peppers, broccoli, tomatoes

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Vitamin D$_3$ (Cholecalciferol, \ce{C27H44O})}

\textbf{Common name:} Cholecalciferol, sunshine vitamin, anti-rickets vitamin

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Fat-soluble vitamin
\item Synthesized in skin upon UV exposure
\item Regulates calcium and phosphate absorption
\item Essential for bone health
\item Deficiency: Rickets (children), osteomalacia (adults)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Sunlight exposure, fish oils, fortified milk, egg yolk

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Vitamin E ($\alpha$-Tocopherol, \ce{C29H50O2})}

\textbf{Common name:} $\alpha$-Tocopherol, anti-sterility vitamin

\textbf{Structure:} Chromanol ring system with long phytyl side chain

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Fat-soluble vitamin
\item Major antioxidant protecting cell membranes
\item Protects polyunsaturated fatty acids from oxidation
\item Important for reproduction and immune function
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Vitamin K (Phylloquinone, \ce{C31H46O2})}

\textbf{Common name:} Phylloquinone, anti-hemorrhagic vitamin

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Fat-soluble vitamin
\item Essential for blood clotting (activates clotting factors)
\item Important for bone metabolism
\item Synthesized by intestinal bacteria
\item Deficiency: Prolonged bleeding, hemorrhage
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Green leafy vegetables (spinach, kale), liver, bacteria synthesis

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Vitamin B$_1$ (Thiamine, \ce{C12H17N4OS$^+$})}

\textbf{Common name:} Thiamine, anti-beriberi vitamin

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Water-soluble vitamin
\item Cofactor for enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism
\item Essential for nervous system function
\item Deficiency: Beriberi (nerve damage, heart failure)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Whole grains, pork, legumes, nuts

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Vitamin B$_2$ (Riboflavin, \ce{C17H20N4O6})}

\textbf{Common name:} Riboflavin

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Water-soluble vitamin
\item Component of FAD and FMN (electron carriers)
\item Essential for energy metabolism
\item Yellow-orange color, fluorescent in UV light
\item Deficiency: Cracks at corners of mouth, skin disorders
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Milk, eggs, meat, green vegetables

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Vitamin B$_3$ (Niacin, \ce{C6H5NO2})}

\textbf{Common name:} Niacin, nicotinic acid, anti-pellagra vitamin

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{*6(=-=(-COOH)-=-N=)}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Water-soluble vitamin
\item Component of NAD$^+$ and NADP$^+$ (electron carriers)
\item Essential for energy metabolism and DNA repair
\item Deficiency: Pellagra (dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Meat, fish, peanuts, fortified grains

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Vitamin B$_6$ (Pyridoxine, \ce{C8H11NO3})}

\textbf{Common name:} Pyridoxine

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Water-soluble vitamin
\item Cofactor for amino acid metabolism
\item Important for neurotransmitter synthesis
\item Deficiency: Anemia, peripheral neuropathy
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Meat, fish, potatoes, chickpeas, bananas

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Vitamin B$_{12}$ (Cobalamin, \ce{C63H88CoN14O14P})}

\textbf{Common name:} Cobalamin, anti-pernicious anemia vitamin

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Water-soluble vitamin
\item Contains cobalt ion (only vitamin with metal)
\item Essential for DNA synthesis and red blood cell formation
\item Important for nervous system function
\item Requires intrinsic factor for absorption
\item Deficiency: Pernicious anemia, nerve damage
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Animal products only (meat, fish, eggs, dairy)

\subsubsection{Other everyday organic compounds}

\textbf{Agar}

\textbf{Common name:} Agar-agar

\textbf{Structure:} Polysaccharide mixture of agarose and agaropectin extracted from red algae (mainly galactose units with 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose)

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Forms gel at low concentrations (0.5-2\%)
\item Melting point: 85°C, gelling point: 32-40°C (hysteresis)
\item Not digested by most bacteria
\item Stable and inert
\item Vegetarian alternative to gelatin
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Uses:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Microbiology: Culture medium for bacteria and fungi
\item Food industry: Gelling agent, stabilizer, thickener
\item Molecular biology: Gel electrophoresis
\item Cooking: Desserts, jellies (especially in Asian cuisine)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Source:} Red algae (seaweed): Gelidium, Gracilaria species

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Gelatin}

\textbf{Common name:} Gelatin

\textbf{Structure:} Protein derived from collagen hydrolysis; contains glycine, proline, hydroxyproline as major amino acids

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Forms thermoreversible gel
\item Melting point: 35-40°C (melts at body temperature)
\item Amphiphilic (both hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids)
\item Biodegradable
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Uses:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Food: Desserts, marshmallows, gummy candies
\item Pharmaceuticals: Capsule coating, tablet binder
\item Photography: Film emulsion
\item Cosmetics: Face masks, creams
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Source:} Animal collagen (bones, skin, connective tissue)

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Caffeine (\ce{C8H10N4O2})}

\textbf{Common name:} Caffeine, guaranine, theine

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{*6(=N-*5(-N(-CH_3)-(=O)-N(-CH_3)-)=-(=O)-N=-)(-[:90]CH_3)}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Central nervous system stimulant
\item Alkaloid (contains nitrogen in heterocyclic ring)
\item Bitter taste
\item Sublimes at 178°C without melting
\item Blocks adenosine receptors (reduces drowsiness)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Effects:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Increases alertness and concentration
\item Mild diuretic
\item Can cause insomnia, jitters at high doses
\item Tolerance develops with regular use
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Coffee beans, tea leaves, cocoa beans, guarana, kola nuts

\textbf{Content:} Coffee (95 mg/cup), tea (47 mg/cup), cola (40 mg/can), chocolate (25 mg/bar)

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Nicotine (\ce{C10H14N2})}

\textbf{Common name:} Nicotine

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{*6(=-*5(-=-(-[:90]CH_3)-N-)-=-(-[:0]*5(-N--=-=))=)}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Highly addictive alkaloid
\item Liquid at room temperature, turns brown on exposure to air
\item Stimulant at low doses, depressant at high doses
\item Binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
\item Highly toxic (LD$_{50}$ = 0.5-1 mg/kg)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Source:} Tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum)

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Vanillin (\ce{C8H8O3})}

\textbf{Common name:} Vanillin, vanilla flavor

\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{*6(=-=(-OCH_3)-(-OH)=-(-CHO)=)}

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Aromatic aldehyde
\item Pleasant sweet vanilla odor
\item White crystalline solid
\item Phenolic compound (contains -OH on benzene ring)
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Uses:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Flavoring agent in food and beverages
\item Fragrance in perfumes and cosmetics
\item Most used flavoring compound in the world
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Natural: Vanilla beans (pods of Vanilla planifolia orchid); Synthetic: Made from lignin or guaiacol

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Menthol (\ce{C10H20O})}

\textbf{Common name:} Menthol, peppermint camphor

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Cyclic terpene alcohol
\item Cooling sensation (activates cold-sensitive receptors)
\item Minty odor and taste
\item Crystalline solid at room temperature
\item Local anesthetic and mild analgesic properties
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Uses:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Flavoring: Chewing gum, candy, toothpaste
\item Pharmaceuticals: Cough drops, throat lozenges, topical pain relief
\item Cigarettes: Menthol cigarettes
\item Cosmetics: Shampoos, lip balms
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Natural: Peppermint and other mint oils; Synthetic: From citronellal or thymol

\vspace{0.5cm}

\textbf{Cholesterol (\ce{C27H46O})}

\textbf{Common name:} Cholesterol

\textbf{Properties:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Steroid lipid with four fused rings (sterane core)
\item Essential component of animal cell membranes
\item Precursor for steroid hormones, bile acids, vitamin D
\item Synthesized in liver
\item Transported in blood by lipoproteins (LDL, HDL)
\item High levels associated with cardiovascular disease
\end{itemize}

\textbf{Sources:} Synthesized by body; dietary sources include meat, eggs, dairy products
