2502 lines
81 KiB
TeX
2502 lines
81 KiB
TeX
\documentclass[10pt,a4paper]{extarticle}
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% Package imports
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\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
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\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
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\usepackage{amsmath}
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\usepackage{chemfig}
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\usepackage[version=4]{mhchem}
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\usepackage{graphicx}
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\usepackage{geometry}
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\usepackage{hyperref}
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\usepackage{booktabs}
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\usepackage{longtable}
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\usepackage{array}
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\usepackage{float}
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% Page layout
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\geometry{
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margin=1in
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}
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% Document information
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\title{Chemistry Vocabulary}
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\author{}
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\date{}
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\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}
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\begin{document}
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\maketitle
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\section*{Introduction}
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\section{Elements and elementary substances}
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\subsection{Alkali metals}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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3 & Li & Lithium & Lithium & 6.94 \\
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11 & Na & Sodium & Natrium & 22.99 \\
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19 & K & Potassium & Kalium & 39.10 \\
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37 & Rb & Rubidium & Rubidium & 85.47 \\
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55 & Cs & Cesium & Caesium & 132.91 \\
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87 & Fr & Francium & Francium & (223) \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.5cm}p{1.8cm}p{1.8cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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Li & 180.5 & 1342 & BCC & Batteries, alloys \\
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Na & 97.7 & 883 & BCC & Reducing agent, coolant \\
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K & 63.5 & 759 & BCC & Fertilizer, gun powder \\
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Rb & 39.3 & 688 & BCC & Photoelectric cells \\
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Cs & 28.4 & 671 & BCC & Atomic clocks \\
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Fr & 27 & 677 & --- & Radioactive, no use \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Sodium (Na):} Electrolysis of molten NaCl: \ce{2NaCl ->[electrolysis] 2Na + Cl2 ^}
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\textbf{Potassium (K):} Reduction of KCl with Na at high temperature: \ce{KCl + Na ->[high T] K ^ + NaCl}
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\subsection{Alkaline earth metals}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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4 & Be & Beryllium & Beryllium & 9.01 \\
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12 & Mg & Magnesium & Magnesium & 24.31 \\
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20 & Ca & Calcium & Calcium & 40.08 \\
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38 & Sr & Strontium & Strontium & 87.62 \\
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56 & Ba & Barium & Barium & 137.33 \\
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88 & Ra & Radium & Radium & (226) \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.5cm}p{1.8cm}p{1.8cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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Be & 1287 & 2470 & HCP & Alloys, X-ray windows \\
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Mg & 650 & 1090 & HCP & Alloys, fireworks \\
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Ca & 842 & 1484 & FCC & Reducing agent, cement \\
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Sr & 777 & 1382 & FCC & Fireworks (red) \\
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Ba & 727 & 1897 & BCC & Drilling fluids \\
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Ra & 700 & 1737 & BCC & Radioactive, obsolete \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Magnesium (Mg):} Electrolysis of molten MgCl$_2$: \ce{MgCl2 ->[electrolysis] Mg + Cl2 ^}
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Alternatively, reduction of MgO with coke: \ce{MgO + C ->[high T] Mg ^ + CO ^}
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\textbf{Calcium (Ca):} Electrolysis of molten CaCl$_2$ or reduction of CaO with Al
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\subsection{Transition metals}
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\subsubsection{Elements (First Row)}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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21 & Sc & Scandium & Scandium & 44.96 \\
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22 & Ti & Titanium & Titanium & 47.87 \\
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23 & V & Vanadium & Vanadium & 50.94 \\
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24 & Cr & Chromium & Chromium & 52.00 \\
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25 & Mn & Manganese & Manganese & 54.94 \\
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26 & Fe & Iron & Ferrum & 55.85 \\
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27 & Co & Cobalt & Cobaltum & 58.93 \\
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28 & Ni & Nickel & Niccolum & 58.69 \\
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29 & Cu & Copper & Cuprum & 63.55 \\
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30 & Zn & Zinc & Zincum & 65.38 \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Important Elements (Other Rows)}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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47 & Ag & Silver & Argentum & 107.87 \\
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48 & Cd & Cadmium & Cadmium & 112.41 \\
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74 & W & Tungsten & Wolframium & 183.84 \\
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78 & Pt & Platinum & Platinum & 195.08 \\
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79 & Au & Gold & Aurum & 196.97 \\
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80 & Hg & Mercury & Hydrargyrum & 200.59 \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{longtable}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.2cm}p{4.5cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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\endfirsthead
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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\endhead
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Ti & 1668 & 3287 & HCP & Aerospace alloys, pigments \\
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V & 1910 & 3407 & BCC & Steel alloys, catalysts \\
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Cr & 1907 & 2671 & BCC & Stainless steel, plating \\
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Mn & 1246 & 2061 & Cubic & Steel production \\
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Fe & 1538 & 2862 & BCC & Construction, machinery \\
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Co & 1495 & 2927 & HCP & Alloys, magnets \\
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Ni & 1455 & 2913 & FCC & Alloys, catalysts, coins \\
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Cu & 1085 & 2562 & FCC & Electrical wire, plumbing \\
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Zn & 419.5 & 907 & HCP & Galvanization, batteries \\
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Ag & 961.8 & 2162 & FCC & Jewelry, conductors \\
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Cd & 321.1 & 767 & HCP & Batteries, pigments \\
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W & 3422 & 5555 & BCC & Light bulb filaments \\
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Pt & 1768 & 3825 & FCC & Catalysts, jewelry \\
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Au & 1064 & 2856 & FCC & Jewelry, electronics \\
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Hg & -38.8 & 356.7 & Rhombohedral & Thermometers, lamps \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{longtable}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Iron (Fe):} Reduction in blast furnace: \ce{Fe2O3 + 3CO ->[high T] 2Fe + 3CO2}
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\textbf{Copper (Cu):} Roasting sulfide ore then reduction: \ce{2Cu2S + 3O2 -> 2Cu2O + 2SO2}, then \ce{Cu2S + 2Cu2O -> 6Cu + SO2 ^}
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Alternatively, leaching and electrowinning from oxide ores.
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\textbf{Zinc (Zn):} Roasting then reduction with carbon: \ce{2ZnS + 3O2 -> 2ZnO + 2SO2}, then \ce{ZnO + C -> Zn + CO}
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\textbf{Chromium (Cr):} Reduction of Cr$_2$O$_3$ with aluminum (thermite process): \ce{Cr2O3 + 2Al -> 2Cr + Al2O3}
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\subsection{Post-transition metals}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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13 & Al & Aluminum & Aluminium & 26.98 \\
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31 & Ga & Gallium & Gallium & 69.72 \\
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49 & In & Indium & Indium & 114.82 \\
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50 & Sn & Tin & Stannum & 118.71 \\
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81 & Tl & Thallium & Thallium & 204.38 \\
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82 & Pb & Lead & Plumbum & 207.2 \\
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83 & Bi & Bismuth & Bismuthum & 208.98 \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.2cm}p{4.5cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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Al & 660.3 & 2519 & FCC & Packaging, construction \\
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Ga & 29.8 & 2204 & Orthorhombic & Semiconductors, LEDs \\
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In & 156.6 & 2072 & Tetragonal & LCD screens, solders \\
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Sn & 231.9 & 2602 & Tetragonal & Solder, coatings \\
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Tl & 304 & 1473 & HCP & Rat poison (obsolete) \\
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Pb & 327.5 & 1749 & FCC & Batteries, radiation shield \\
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Bi & 271.4 & 1564 & Rhombohedral & Alloys, cosmetics \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Aluminum (Al):} Hall-H\'eroult process (electrolysis of Al$_2$O$_3$ dissolved in molten cryolite):
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\ce{2Al2O3 ->[electrolysis] 4Al + 3O2 ^}
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\textbf{Lead (Pb):} Roasting galena (PbS) then reduction: \ce{2PbS + 3O2 -> 2PbO + 2SO2}, then \ce{PbO + C -> Pb + CO}
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\textbf{Tin (Sn):} Reduction of cassiterite (SnO$_2$) with carbon: \ce{SnO2 + 2C -> Sn + 2CO ^}
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\subsection{Metalloids}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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5 & B & Boron & Borium & 10.81 \\
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14 & Si & Silicon & Silicium & 28.09 \\
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32 & Ge & Germanium & Germanium & 72.64 \\
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33 & As & Arsenic & Arsenicum & 74.92 \\
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51 & Sb & Antimony & Stibium & 121.76 \\
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52 & Te & Tellurium & Tellurium & 127.60 \\
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84 & Po & Polonium & Polonium & (209) \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.2cm}p{4.5cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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B & 2075 & 4000 & Rhombohedral & Glass, detergents \\
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Si & 1414 & 3265 & Diamond cubic & Semiconductors, solar cells \\
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Ge & 938.3 & 2833 & Diamond cubic & Semiconductors, optics \\
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As & 817 & 614 (subl.) & Rhombohedral & Alloys, pesticides \\
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Sb & 630.6 & 1587 & Rhombohedral & Flame retardants, alloys \\
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Te & 449.5 & 988 & Hexagonal & Alloys, solar cells \\
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Po & 254 & 962 & Cubic & Radioactive, no common use \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Silicon (Si):} Reduction of silica (SiO$_2$) with carbon in electric furnace: \ce{SiO2 + 2C ->[high T] Si + 2CO ^}
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For ultrapure silicon (semiconductors): Trichlorosilane reduction: \ce{SiHCl3 + H2 ->[high T] Si + 3HCl}
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\subsection{Halogen}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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9 & F & Fluorine & Fluorum & 19.00 \\
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17 & Cl & Chlorine & Chlorum & 35.45 \\
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35 & Br & Bromine & Bromum & 79.90 \\
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53 & I & Iodine & Iodum & 126.90 \\
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85 & At & Astatine & Astatium & (210) \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Physical State & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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F$_2$ & -219.6 & -188.1 & Pale yellow gas & Toothpaste, Teflon \\
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Cl$_2$ & -101.5 & -34.0 & Yellow-green gas & Disinfectant, PVC \\
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Br$_2$ & -7.2 & 58.8 & Red-brown liquid & Flame retardants, dyes \\
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I$_2$ & 113.7 & 184.3 & Purple-black solid & Disinfectant, photography \\
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At$_2$ & 302 & 337 & Solid (radioactive) & No practical use \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Chlorine (Cl$_2$):} Electrolysis of brine (chlor-alkali process): \ce{2NaCl + 2H2O ->[electrolysis] Cl2 ^ + H2 ^ + 2NaOH}
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Laboratory: Oxidation of HCl: \ce{MnO2 + 4HCl ->[heat] MnCl2 + Cl2 ^ + 2H2O}
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\textbf{Bromine (Br$_2$):} Oxidation of bromide in seawater: \ce{2Br- + Cl2 -> Br2 + 2Cl-}
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\textbf{Iodine (I$_2$):} Oxidation of iodide from brine or seaweed: \ce{2I- + Cl2 -> I2 + 2Cl-}
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Or from Chile saltpeter: \ce{2NaIO3 + 5NaHSO3 -> I2 + 3NaHSO4 + 2Na2SO4 + H2O}
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\textbf{Fluorine (F$_2$):} Electrolysis of KF in anhydrous HF: \ce{2HF ->[electrolysis] H2 + F2 ^}
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\subsection{Noble gases}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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2 & He & Helium & Helium & 4.00 \\
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10 & Ne & Neon & Neon & 20.18 \\
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18 & Ar & Argon & Argon & 39.95 \\
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36 & Kr & Krypton & Krypton & 83.80 \\
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54 & Xe & Xenon & Xenon & 131.29 \\
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86 & Rn & Radon & Radon & (222) \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Physical State & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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He & -272.2 & -268.9 & Colorless gas & Balloons, cryogenics \\
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Ne & -248.6 & -246.0 & Colorless gas & Neon signs, lasers \\
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Ar & -189.3 & -185.8 & Colorless gas & Welding, light bulbs \\
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Kr & -157.4 & -153.2 & Colorless gas & Flash lamps, lasers \\
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Xe & -111.8 & -108.1 & Colorless gas & Anesthesia, ion drives \\
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Rn & -71 & -61.7 & Colorless gas & Radioactive tracer \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation}
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Noble gases are obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air (except He and Rn).
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\textbf{Helium (He):} Extracted from natural gas wells.
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\textbf{Radon (Rn):} Decay product of radium, collected from uranium/thorium ores.
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\subsection{Other Nonmetals}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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1 & H & Hydrogen & Hydrogenium & 1.008 \\
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6 & C & Carbon & Carboneum & 12.01 \\
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7 & N & Nitrogen & Nitrogenium & 14.01 \\
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8 & O & Oxygen & Oxygenium & 16.00 \\
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15 & P & Phosphorus & Phosphorus & 30.97 \\
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16 & S & Sulfur & Sulfur & 32.07 \\
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34 & Se & Selenium & Selenium & 78.96 \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{longtable}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.3cm}p{4.3cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Form/Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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\endfirsthead
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Form/Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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\endhead
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H$_2$ & -259.2 & -252.9 & Colorless gas & Fuel, ammonia synthesis \\
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C (graphite) & 3825 & 4827 (subl.) & Hexagonal layers & Pencils, electrodes \\
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C (diamond) & 3550 & --- & Cubic crystal & Jewelry, cutting tools \\
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C (fullerene) & --- & --- & Molecular cage & Research, electronics \\
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N$_2$ & -210.0 & -195.8 & Colorless gas & Fertilizers, inert atm. \\
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O$_2$ & -218.8 & -183.0 & Colorless gas & Respiration, combustion \\
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O$_3$ (ozone) & -192.5 & -112.0 & Blue gas & Sterilization, UV shield \\
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P (white) & 44.2 & 280 & Molecular solid & Incendiaries, match \\
|
|
P (red) & 590 & 431 (subl.) & Amorphous & Safety matches \\
|
|
P (black) & --- & --- & Layered & Research \\
|
|
S (rhombic) & 115.2 & 444.6 & Orthorhombic & Sulfuric acid, vulcanize \\
|
|
S (monoclinic) & 119 & 444.6 & Monoclinic & Allotrope of sulfur \\
|
|
Se (gray) & 221 & 685 & Hexagonal & Photocells, glass \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Hydrogen (H$_2$):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Steam reforming of methane: \ce{CH4 + H2O <=>[catalyst][high T] CO + 3H2}
|
|
\item Electrolysis of water: \ce{2H2O ->[electrolysis] 2H2 ^ + O2 ^}
|
|
\item Laboratory: Reaction of metals with acids: \ce{Zn + 2HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Oxygen (O$_2$):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Fractional distillation of liquid air
|
|
\item Electrolysis of water: \ce{2H2O ->[electrolysis] 2H2 ^ + O2 ^}
|
|
\item Laboratory: Decomposition of KMnO$_4$: \ce{2KMnO4 ->[heat] K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2 ^}
|
|
\item Or: \ce{2KClO3 ->[MnO2, heat] 2KCl + 3O2 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Nitrogen (N$_2$):} Fractional distillation of liquid air
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Chlorine (Cl$_2$):} See Halogen section
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sulfur (S):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Frasch process: Melting underground sulfur with superheated water
|
|
\item Recovered from petroleum refining and natural gas processing
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Phosphorus (P):} Reduction of phosphate rock with coke and silica:
|
|
|
|
\ce{2Ca3(PO4)2 + 6SiO2 + 10C ->[high T] 6CaSiO3 + 10CO ^ + P4 ^}
|
|
|
|
\section{Acids and bases ions}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Hydrogen halides}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Hydrofluoric acid}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HF} (Hydrofluoric acid, Hydrogen fluoride)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid in aqueous solution (unlike other hydrogen halides), can dissolve glass.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Etching glass: \ce{SiO2 + 4HF -> SiF4 ^ + 2H2O}
|
|
\item With calcium: \ce{Ca + 2HF -> CaF2 + H2 ^}
|
|
\item Formation of hexafluorosilicate: \ce{SiO2 + 6HF -> H2SiF6 + 2H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Hydrochloric acid}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HCl} (Hydrochloric acid, Hydrogen chloride)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, colorless gas, forms white fumes in moist air.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation by manganese dioxide: \ce{MnO2 + 4HCl ->[heat] MnCl2 + Cl2 ^ + 2H2O}
|
|
\item With ammonia: \ce{NH3 + HCl -> NH4Cl} (white smoke)
|
|
\item Dissolving metals: \ce{Fe + 2HCl -> FeCl2 + H2 ^}
|
|
\item With permanganate: \ce{2KMnO4 + 16HCl -> 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 ^ + 8H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Hydrobromic acid}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HBr} (Hydrobromic acid, Hydrogen bromide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, stronger reducing agent than HCl.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation by sulfuric acid: \ce{2HBr + H2SO4 -> Br2 + SO2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item With silver nitrate: \ce{HBr + AgNO3 -> AgBr v + HNO3} (pale yellow precipitate)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Hydroiodic acid}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HI} (Hydroiodic acid, Hydrogen iodide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strongest reducing agent among hydrogen halides.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation by sulfuric acid: \ce{8HI + H2SO4 -> 4I2 + H2S + 4H2O}
|
|
\item Reduction of Fe(III): \ce{2Fe^3+ + 2I- -> 2Fe^2+ + I2}
|
|
\item With chlorine: \ce{2HI + Cl2 -> 2HCl + I2}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Oxyacid}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Nitrogen oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HNO$_2$} (Nitrous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-N=O}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} N is +3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, unstable, exists only in solution.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{3HNO2 -> HNO3 + 2NO ^ + H2O}
|
|
\item Oxidation of iodide: \ce{2HNO2 + 2HI -> I2 + 2NO ^ + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Reduction by reducing agents: \ce{2HNO2 + 2HI -> 2NO ^ + I2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HNO$_3$} (Nitric acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]N(=[2]O)(=[:-30]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} N is +5
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strong oxidizing agent.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With copper: \ce{3Cu + 8HNO3(dilute) -> 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO ^ + 4H2O}
|
|
\item Concentrated with copper: \ce{Cu + 4HNO3(conc.) -> Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 ^ + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Nitration reaction: \ce{C6H6 + HNO3 ->[H2SO4] C6H5NO2 + H2O}
|
|
\item With phosphorus: \ce{P4 + 20HNO3 -> 4H3PO4 + 20NO2 ^ + 4H2O}
|
|
\item Passivation of iron: \ce{Fe + 6HNO3(conc.) -> Fe^3+ (passive layer)}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Sulfur oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_2$SO$_3$} (Sulfurous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]S(=[2]O)(-[:-30]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} S is +4
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, exists only in solution, reducing agent.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation by oxygen: \ce{2H2SO3 + O2 -> 2H2SO4}
|
|
\item Reduction by hydrogen sulfide: \ce{H2SO3 + 2H2S -> 3S v + 3H2O}
|
|
\item With bromine: \ce{H2SO3 + Br2 + H2O -> H2SO4 + 2HBr}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_2$SO$_4$} (Sulfuric acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{S(=[2]O)(=[:200]O)(<[:300]OH)(<:[:-20]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} S is +6
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strong dehydrating agent, strong oxidizing agent (concentrated).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With carbon (dehydration): \ce{C12H22O11 ->[H2SO4(conc.)] 12C + 11H2O}
|
|
\item Hot concentrated with copper: \ce{Cu + 2H2SO4(conc.) ->[heat] CuSO4 + SO2 ^ + 2H2O}
|
|
\item With NaCl (making HCl): \ce{NaCl + H2SO4 ->[heat] NaHSO4 + HCl ^}
|
|
\item Esterification: \ce{CH3COOH + C2H5OH <=>[H2SO4] CH3COOC2H5 + H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Phosphorus oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_3$PO$_3$} (Phosphorous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-[:30]P(=[2]O)(<[:300]OH)(<:[:-20]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} P is +3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Dibasic acid (only 2 acidic H), reducing agent.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Reduction of silver nitrate: \ce{H3PO3 + 2AgNO3 + H2O -> H3PO4 + 2Ag v + 2HNO3}
|
|
\item Disproportionation: \ce{4H3PO3 ->[heat] 3H3PO4 + PH3 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_3$PO$_4$} (Phosphoric acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]P(=[2]O)(<[:300]OH)(<:[:-20]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} P is +5
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak tribasic acid, non-oxidizing.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Dehydration to pyrophosphoric acid: \ce{2H3PO4 ->[heat] H4P2O7 + H2O}
|
|
\item With ammonia: \ce{H3PO4 + NH3 -> NH4H2PO4}
|
|
\item Esterification: \ce{H3PO4 + 3C2H5OH -> (C2H5O)3PO + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Chlorine oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HClO} (Hypochlorous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-Cl}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +1
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Very weak acid, strong oxidizing agent, unstable.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Disproportionation: \ce{3HClO -> HClO3 + 2HCl}
|
|
\item Oxidation: \ce{HClO + H2S -> HCl + S v + H2O}
|
|
\item Bleaching: \ce{HClO + [dye] -> [oxidized dye] (colorless)}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HClO$_2$} (Chlorous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]Cl(=[2]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, unstable, exists only in solution.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HClO$_3$} (Chloric acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]Cl(=[2]O)(=[:-30]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +5
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strong oxidizing agent.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation of sulfur: \ce{3S + 6HClO3 -> 3H2SO4 + 3Cl2 ^}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{8HClO3 -> 4Cl2 ^ + 6O2 ^ + 4H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HClO$_4$} (Perchloric acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]Cl(=[2]O)(=[:300]O)(=[:-20]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +7
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Very strong acid, strongest common acid, powerful oxidizing agent when hot/concentrated.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation of organic compounds: \ce{C6H12O6 + 24HClO4 ->[heat] 6CO2 ^ + 12Cl2 ^ + 18H2O}
|
|
\item With metals: \ce{Mg + 2HClO4 -> Mg(ClO4)2 + H2 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Carbon oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_2$CO$_3$} (Carbonic acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]C(=[2]O)(-[:-30]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} C is +4
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, unstable, exists in equilibrium with CO$_2$ and H$_2$O.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{H2CO3 <=> CO2 ^ + H2O}
|
|
\item With ammonia: \ce{H2CO3 + 2NH3 -> (NH4)2CO3}
|
|
\item Formation: \ce{CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Bromine and iodine oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HBrO} (Hypobromous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-Br}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Br is +1
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HBrO$_3$} (Bromic acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]Br(=[2]O)(-[:-30]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Br is +5
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HIO$_3$} (Iodic acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]I(=[2]O)(-[:-30]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} I is +5
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation: \ce{5HI + HIO3 -> 3I2 + 3H2O}
|
|
\item With sulfur dioxide: \ce{HIO3 + 3H2SO3 -> HI + 3H2SO4}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_5$IO$_6$} (Periodic acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{I(=[2]O)(<:[:30]OH)(<[:-30]OH)(<:[:150]OH)(<[:210]OH)(-[:270]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} I is +7
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidative cleavage of diols: Used to cleave vicinal diols (glycols) to aldehydes or ketones
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Bases from metal oxides}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Alkali metal hydroxides}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{NaOH} (Sodium hydroxide, Caustic soda, Lye)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Na is +1
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, deliquescent, corrosive.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With aluminum (amphoteric): \ce{2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O -> 2NaAlO2 + 3H2 ^}
|
|
\item With silicon dioxide: \ce{SiO2 + 2NaOH ->[heat] Na2SiO3 + H2O}
|
|
\item Saponification of esters: \ce{CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH -> CH3COONa + C2H5OH}
|
|
\item With chlorine (disproportionation): \ce{Cl2 + 2NaOH -> NaCl + NaClO + H2O}
|
|
\item With sulfur: \ce{3S + 6NaOH ->[heat] 2Na2S + Na2SO3 + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{KOH} (Potassium hydroxide, Caustic potash)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} K is +1
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, more hygroscopic than NaOH.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With CO$_2$: \ce{2KOH + CO2 -> K2CO3 + H2O}
|
|
\item Excess CO$_2$: \ce{K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O -> 2KHCO3}
|
|
\item With haloalkanes (elimination): \ce{C2H5Br + KOH ->[alcohol] C2H4 ^ + KBr + H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{LiOH} (Lithium hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Li is +1
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, used in CO$_2$ scrubbers.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item CO$_2$ absorption: \ce{2LiOH + CO2 -> Li2CO3 + H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Alkaline earth metal hydroxides}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Ca(OH)$_2$} (Calcium hydroxide, Slaked lime, Hydrated lime)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Ca is +2
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Moderately strong base, sparingly soluble in water (lime water).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With CO$_2$ (limewater test): \ce{Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 v + H2O}
|
|
\item Excess CO$_2$: \ce{CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O -> Ca(HCO3)2} (soluble)
|
|
\item With chlorine: \ce{2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2 -> CaCl2 + Ca(ClO)2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Preparation from quicklime: \ce{CaO + H2O -> Ca(OH)2} (exothermic)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Mg(OH)$_2$} (Magnesium hydroxide, Milk of magnesia)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Mg is +2
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, very sparingly soluble, antacid.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{Mg(OH)2 ->[heat] MgO + H2O}
|
|
\item With acids (antacid action): \ce{Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl -> MgCl2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Ba(OH)$_2$} (Barium hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Ba is +2
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, more soluble than Ca(OH)$_2$.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With sulfuric acid: \ce{Ba(OH)2 + H2SO4 -> BaSO4 v + 2H2O}
|
|
\item With ammonium salts (endothermic): \ce{Ba(OH)2.8H2O + 2NH4Cl -> BaCl2 + 2NH3 ^ + 10H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Ammonia and related bases}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{NH$_3$} (Ammonia)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{N(-[:90]H)(-[:210]H)(-[:330]H)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} N is -3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, pungent gas, very soluble in water.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Complex formation with Cu$^{2+}$: \ce{Cu^2+ + 4NH3 -> [Cu(NH3)4]^2+} (deep blue)
|
|
\item With HCl: \ce{NH3 + HCl -> NH4Cl} (white smoke)
|
|
\item Haber process: \ce{N2 + 3H2 <=>[Fe catalyst][high T, P] 2NH3}
|
|
\item Oxidation by oxygen: \ce{4NH3 + 5O2 ->[Pt catalyst] 4NO + 6H2O} (Ostwald process)
|
|
\item With chlorine: \ce{2NH3 + 3Cl2 -> N2 + 6HCl}
|
|
\item Reduction of CuO: \ce{3CuO + 2NH3 ->[heat] 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{NH$_4$OH} (Ammonium hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Formula:} NH$_4^+$ and OH$^-$ ions in aqueous solution
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} N is -3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Aqueous ammonia solution, weak base.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Precipitation of metal hydroxides: \ce{Fe^3+ + 3NH4OH -> Fe(OH)3 v + 3NH4+}
|
|
\item With excess ammonia (complex formation): \ce{Zn(OH)2 + 4NH3 -> [Zn(NH3)4]^2+ + 2OH-}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Transition metal hydroxides}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Fe(OH)$_2$} (Iron(II) hydroxide, Ferrous hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Fe is +2
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, white-green solid, easily oxidized.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation: \ce{4Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O -> 4Fe(OH)3} (turns brown)
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{Fe(OH)2 ->[heat] FeO + H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Fe(OH)$_3$} (Iron(III) hydroxide, Ferric hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Fe is +3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Very weak base, brown precipitate.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{2Fe(OH)3 ->[heat] Fe2O3 + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Al(OH)$_3$} (Aluminum hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Al is +3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Amphoteric, white precipitate, antacid.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With acid: \ce{Al(OH)3 + 3HCl -> AlCl3 + 3H2O}
|
|
\item With base: \ce{Al(OH)3 + NaOH -> NaAlO2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{2Al(OH)3 ->[heat] Al2O3 + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Cu(OH)$_2$} (Copper(II) hydroxide, Cupric hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Cu is +2
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, blue precipitate.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{Cu(OH)2 ->[heat] CuO + H2O}
|
|
\item With ammonia: \ce{Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3 -> [Cu(NH3)4]^2+ + 2OH-} (deep blue solution)
|
|
\item With tartaric acid (Fehling's reagent): Forms copper tartrate complex
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\section{Ores and alloys}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Ores}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{3cm}p{6cm}p{3.5cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
English Name & Properties & Formula \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
English Name & Properties & Formula \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
Hematite & Red-brown iron ore, most important iron ore & \ce{Fe2O3} \\
|
|
Magnetite & Black magnetic iron ore, high iron content & \ce{Fe3O4} \\
|
|
Limonite & Yellow-brown hydrated iron oxide & \ce{2Fe2O3.3H2O} \\
|
|
Siderite & Iron carbonate, light colored & \ce{FeCO3} \\
|
|
Pyrite & Brass-yellow, fool's gold, used for sulfuric acid & \ce{FeS2} \\
|
|
Chalcopyrite & Brass-yellow copper ore, most abundant copper ore & \ce{CuFeS2} \\
|
|
Chalcocite & Dark gray copper sulfide & \ce{Cu2S} \\
|
|
Malachite & Green basic copper carbonate & \ce{Cu2CO3(OH)2} \\
|
|
Azurite & Blue basic copper carbonate & \ce{Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2} \\
|
|
Cuprite & Red copper oxide & \ce{Cu2O} \\
|
|
Bauxite & Reddish aluminum ore, clay-like & \ce{Al2O3.nH2O} \\
|
|
Cryolite & White, used as flux in aluminum production & \ce{Na3AlF6} \\
|
|
Corundum & Very hard aluminum oxide, includes ruby/sapphire & \ce{Al2O3} \\
|
|
Galena & Lead-gray, cubic crystals, main lead ore & \ce{PbS} \\
|
|
Cerussite & White lead carbonate & \ce{PbCO3} \\
|
|
Anglesite & White lead sulfate & \ce{PbSO4} \\
|
|
Sphalerite (Zinc blende) & Yellow-brown to black, main zinc ore & \ce{ZnS} \\
|
|
Smithsonite & White zinc carbonate & \ce{ZnCO3} \\
|
|
Zincite & Red-orange zinc oxide & \ce{ZnO} \\
|
|
Cassiterite & Brown-black tin oxide, main tin ore & \ce{SnO2} \\
|
|
Cinnabar & Bright red mercury sulfide, main mercury ore & \ce{HgS} \\
|
|
Argentite & Dark gray silver sulfide & \ce{Ag2S} \\
|
|
Calamine & Zinc silicate ore & \ce{Zn4Si2O7(OH)2.H2O} \\
|
|
Chromite & Black chromium iron oxide, main chromium ore & \ce{FeCr2O4} \\
|
|
Pyrolusite & Black manganese dioxide ore & \ce{MnO2} \\
|
|
Rhodochrosite & Pink manganese carbonate & \ce{MnCO3} \\
|
|
Rutile & Red-brown titanium dioxide & \ce{TiO2} \\
|
|
Ilmenite & Black iron titanium oxide & \ce{FeTiO3} \\
|
|
Barite & White barium sulfate, heavy & \ce{BaSO4} \\
|
|
Witherite & White barium carbonate & \ce{BaCO3} \\
|
|
Scheelite & White tungsten calcium ore & \ce{CaWO4} \\
|
|
Wolframite & Black iron manganese tungsten ore & \ce{(Fe,Mn)WO4} \\
|
|
Molybdenite & Gray, soft molybdenum sulfide & \ce{MoS2} \\
|
|
Carnallite & White-red potassium magnesium salt & \ce{KCl.MgCl2.6H2O} \\
|
|
Sylvite & White-red potassium chloride & \ce{KCl} \\
|
|
Halite (Rock salt) & Transparent-white sodium chloride & \ce{NaCl} \\
|
|
Fluorite (Fluorspar) & Colorful calcium fluoride & \ce{CaF2} \\
|
|
Limestone & White-gray calcium carbonate sedimentary rock & \ce{CaCO3} \\
|
|
Dolomite & White-pink calcium magnesium carbonate & \ce{CaMg(CO3)2} \\
|
|
Gypsum & White calcium sulfate dihydrate & \ce{CaSO4.2H2O} \\
|
|
Anhydrite & White calcium sulfate & \ce{CaSO4} \\
|
|
Apatite & Green-blue calcium phosphate & \ce{Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)} \\
|
|
Phosphorite & Gray-brown calcium phosphate rock & \ce{Ca3(PO4)2} \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Alloys}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{2.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{4.5cm}p{3cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
English Name & Elements & Properties & Application \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
English Name & Elements & Properties & Application \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
Steel & Fe, C (< 2\%) & Strong, hard, malleable & Construction, tools \\
|
|
Stainless steel & Fe, Cr (10-20\%), Ni & Corrosion-resistant, strong & Cutlery, medical \\
|
|
Cast iron & Fe, C (2-4\%) & Brittle, hard, good casting & Engine blocks, pipes \\
|
|
Brass & Cu (55-95\%), Zn & Golden, corrosion-resistant & Musical instruments, fittings \\
|
|
Bronze & Cu (88\%), Sn (12\%) & Hard, corrosion-resistant & Sculptures, bearings \\
|
|
Aluminum bronze & Cu, Al (5-11\%) & Strong, corrosion-resistant & Marine hardware, coins \\
|
|
Cupronickel & Cu (75\%), Ni (25\%) & Silver-colored, corrosion-resistant & Coins, marine uses \\
|
|
German silver & Cu, Ni, Zn & Silver-white, no silver & Cutlery, jewelry base \\
|
|
Phosphor bronze & Cu, Sn, P & Elastic, wear-resistant & Springs, electrical \\
|
|
Gunmetal & Cu, Sn (10\%), Zn (2\%) & Corrosion-resistant, tough & Gears, bearings \\
|
|
Duralumin & Al (94\%), Cu (4\%), Mg & Light, strong, age-hardenable & Aircraft, aerospace \\
|
|
Magnalium & Al (70-95\%), Mg & Very light, strong & Aircraft parts \\
|
|
Alnico & Al, Ni, Co, Fe & Strong magnetic & Permanent magnets \\
|
|
Solder & Sn (60\%), Pb (40\%) & Low melting point & Electrical joints \\
|
|
Lead-free solder & Sn, Cu, Ag & Low melting, no lead toxicity & Electronics \\
|
|
Pewter & Sn (85-99\%), Sb, Cu & Soft, silvery, malleable & Decorative items \\
|
|
Babbitt metal & Sn, Sb, Cu & Low friction, soft & Bearing surfaces \\
|
|
Type metal & Pb, Sn, Sb & Expands on cooling & Printing type \\
|
|
Wood's metal & Bi, Pb, Sn, Cd & Very low melting (70$^\circ$C) & Fire sprinklers, fuses \\
|
|
Rose's metal & Bi, Pb, Sn & Low melting (98$^\circ$C) & Fusible alloys \\
|
|
Nichrome & Ni (80\%), Cr (20\%) & High electrical resistance, heat-resistant & Heating elements \\
|
|
Monel metal & Ni (67\%), Cu (30\%) & Corrosion-resistant, strong & Marine, chemical \\
|
|
Invar & Fe (64\%), Ni (36\%) & Very low thermal expansion & Precision instruments \\
|
|
Permalloy & Fe (20\%), Ni (80\%) & High magnetic permeability & Transformers, sensors \\
|
|
Constantan & Cu (55\%), Ni (45\%) & Constant electrical resistance & Thermocouples \\
|
|
Manganin & Cu (86\%), Mn (12\%), Ni & Stable resistance vs. temperature & Precision resistors \\
|
|
Stellite & Co, Cr, W, C & Very hard, wear-resistant & Cutting tools \\
|
|
Hastelloy & Ni, Mo, Cr, Fe & Excellent corrosion resistance & Chemical equipment \\
|
|
Titanium alloy & Ti (90\%), Al (6\%), V (4\%) & High strength-to-weight ratio & Aerospace, implants \\
|
|
Amalgam & Hg, Ag, Sn, Cu & Soft, hardens over time & Dental fillings \\
|
|
Elektron & Mg (90\%), Al, Zn & Extremely light & Aircraft parts \\
|
|
Beryllium copper & Cu (98\%), Be (2\%) & Non-sparking, elastic & Explosion-proof tools \\
|
|
White gold & Au, Ni/Pd, Zn & White-silver appearance & Jewelry \\
|
|
Rose gold & Au (75\%), Cu (22.5\%), Ag & Pink-red color & Jewelry \\
|
|
Sterling silver & Ag (92.5\%), Cu (7.5\%) & Harder than pure silver & Jewelry, tableware \\
|
|
Britannia silver & Ag (95.8\%), Cu & Softer, higher silver content & High-end silverware \\
|
|
Nitinol & Ni (55\%), Ti (45\%) & Shape memory effect & Medical devices, actuators \\
|
|
Zamak & Zn, Al, Mg, Cu & Good castability, moderate strength & Die castings \\
|
|
Babbitt & Sn, Sb, Cu (or Pb base) & Low friction, good embeddability & Bearings \\
|
|
Bell metal & Cu (78\%), Sn (22\%) & Resonant, hard & Bells, cymbals \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\section{Reactions}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Types of reactions}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Combination reaction (Synthesis reaction)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Two or more substances combine to form a single product.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{General form:} \ce{A + B -> AB}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Formation of water: \ce{2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O}
|
|
\item Formation of ammonia: \ce{N2 + 3H2 -> 2NH3}
|
|
\item Metal oxide formation: \ce{2Mg + O2 -> 2MgO}
|
|
\item Salt formation: \ce{2Na + Cl2 -> 2NaCl}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Decomposition reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} A single compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{General form:} \ce{AB -> A + B}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate: \ce{CaCO3 ->[heat] CaO + CO2 ^}
|
|
\item Electrolysis of water: \ce{2H2O ->[electrolysis] 2H2 ^ + O2 ^}
|
|
\item Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide: \ce{2H2O2 ->[MnO2] 2H2O + O2 ^}
|
|
\item Decomposition of potassium chlorate: \ce{2KClO3 ->[heat] 2KCl + 3O2 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Displacement reaction (Substitution reaction)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} One element replaces another element in a compound.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{General form:} \ce{A + BC -> AC + B}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Zinc displacing hydrogen: \ce{Zn + 2HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2 ^}
|
|
\item Chlorine displacing bromine: \ce{Cl2 + 2NaBr -> 2NaCl + Br2}
|
|
\item Magnesium displacing copper: \ce{Mg + CuSO4 -> MgSO4 + Cu}
|
|
\item Iron displacing copper: \ce{Fe + CuSO4 -> FeSO4 + Cu}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Double displacement reaction (Metathesis reaction)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Exchange of ions between two compounds.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{General form:} \ce{AB + CD -> AD + CB}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Precipitation: \ce{AgNO3 + NaCl -> AgCl v + NaNO3}
|
|
\item Neutralization: \ce{HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O}
|
|
\item Formation of barium sulfate: \ce{BaCl2 + H2SO4 -> BaSO4 v + 2HCl}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Redox reaction (Oxidation-reduction reaction)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Transfer of electrons between species, involving change in oxidation states.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Oxidation:} Loss of electrons, increase in oxidation number.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reduction:} Gain of electrons, decrease in oxidation number.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Combustion: \ce{C + O2 -> CO2}
|
|
\item Permanganate oxidation: \ce{2KMnO4 + 5H2C2O4 + 3H2SO4 -> K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 10CO2 ^ + 8H2O}
|
|
\item Dichromate oxidation: \ce{K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl -> 2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 ^ + 7H2O}
|
|
\item Zinc-copper cell: \ce{Zn + Cu^2+ -> Zn^2+ + Cu}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Acid-base reaction (Neutralization)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{General form:} \ce{Acid + Base -> Salt + Water}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Strong acid-strong base: \ce{HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O}
|
|
\item Weak acid-strong base: \ce{CH3COOH + NaOH -> CH3COONa + H2O}
|
|
\item Dibasic acid: \ce{H2SO4 + 2KOH -> K2SO4 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Carbonate with acid: \ce{Na2CO3 + 2HCl -> 2NaCl + H2O + CO2 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Precipitation reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Formation of an insoluble solid (precipitate) from aqueous solutions.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Silver chloride: \ce{Ag+ + Cl- -> AgCl v} (white precipitate)
|
|
\item Lead iodide: \ce{Pb^2+ + 2I- -> PbI2 v} (yellow precipitate)
|
|
\item Iron(III) hydroxide: \ce{Fe^3+ + 3OH- -> Fe(OH)3 v} (brown precipitate)
|
|
\item Copper(II) hydroxide: \ce{Cu^2+ + 2OH- -> Cu(OH)2 v} (blue precipitate)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Organic reactions}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Halogenation reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Introduction of halogen atoms (F, Cl, Br, I) into organic molecules.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Free radical halogenation (alkanes):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Chlorination of methane: \ce{CH4 + Cl2 ->[UV light] CH3Cl + HCl}
|
|
\item Further substitution: \ce{CH3Cl + Cl2 -> CH2Cl2 + HCl}
|
|
\item Bromination of ethane: \ce{C2H6 + Br2 ->[UV light] C2H5Br + HBr}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Electrophilic halogenation (aromatic):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Bromination of benzene: \ce{C6H6 + Br2 ->[FeBr3] C6H5Br + HBr}
|
|
\item Chlorination of benzene: \ce{C6H6 + Cl2 ->[AlCl3] C6H5Cl + HCl}
|
|
\item Iodination of benzene: \ce{C6H6 + I2 ->[HNO3] C6H5I + HI}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Addition halogenation (alkenes):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Bromination of ethene: \ce{C2H4 + Br2 -> C2H4Br2}
|
|
\item Test for unsaturation: Decolorization of bromine water
|
|
\item Chlorination of propene: \ce{C3H6 + Cl2 -> C3H6Cl2}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Nucleophilic substitution}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Replacement of a leaving group by a nucleophile.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{S$_{\mathbf{N}}$1 mechanism (unimolecular):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Two-step process via carbocation intermediate
|
|
\item Rate depends only on substrate concentration
|
|
\item Favored by tertiary halides and polar solvents
|
|
\item Example: \ce{(CH3)3CBr + H2O -> (CH3)3COH + HBr}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{S$_{\mathbf{N}}$2 mechanism (bimolecular):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item One-step process with backside attack
|
|
\item Rate depends on both substrate and nucleophile concentration
|
|
\item Favored by primary halides and aprotic solvents
|
|
\item Inversion of configuration (Walden inversion)
|
|
\item Example: \ce{CH3Br + OH- -> CH3OH + Br-}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common nucleophiles:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Hydroxide (OH$^-$): Forms alcohols
|
|
\item Alkoxide (RO$^-$): Forms ethers
|
|
\item Cyanide (CN$^-$): Forms nitriles
|
|
\item Ammonia (NH$_3$): Forms amines
|
|
\item Water (H$_2$O): Forms alcohols (weak nucleophile)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Nucleophilic addition}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Addition of a nucleophile to a carbonyl group.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Cyanohydrin formation: \ce{CH3CHO + HCN -> CH3CH(OH)CN}
|
|
\item Grignard addition: \ce{CH3MgBr + CH2O -> CH3CH2OH} (after hydrolysis)
|
|
\item Bisulfite addition: \ce{RCHO + NaHSO3 -> RCH(OH)SO3Na}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Electrophilic addition}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Addition of an electrophile to a multiple bond.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Hydrohalogenation: \ce{C2H4 + HBr -> C2H5Br}
|
|
\item Markovnikov's rule: H adds to carbon with more H atoms
|
|
\item Hydration: \ce{C2H4 + H2O ->[H+] C2H5OH}
|
|
\item Addition of sulfuric acid: \ce{C2H4 + H2SO4 -> C2H5OSO3H}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Elimination reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Removal of atoms or groups to form multiple bonds.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Dehydrohalogenation (E1 and E2):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item E2 mechanism: \ce{C2H5Br + KOH ->[alcohol, heat] C2H4 ^ + KBr + H2O}
|
|
\item Zaitsev's rule: Major product is more substituted alkene
|
|
\item E1 mechanism: Two-step via carbocation
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Dehydration of alcohols:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Ethanol dehydration: \ce{C2H5OH ->[H2SO4, heat] C2H4 ^ + H2O}
|
|
\item Intramolecular (forms alkene) vs intermolecular (forms ether)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Oxidation reactions}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Oxidation of alcohols:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Primary to aldehyde: \ce{RCH2OH ->[oxidation] RCHO ->[oxidation] RCOOH}
|
|
\item Secondary to ketone: \ce{R2CHOH ->[oxidation] R2CO}
|
|
\item Tertiary alcohols: Resistant to oxidation
|
|
\item Oxidizing agents: \ce{K2Cr2O7/H2SO4}, \ce{KMnO4}, \ce{CrO3}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Oxidation of aldehydes:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item To carboxylic acid: \ce{RCHO ->[oxidation] RCOOH}
|
|
\item Mild oxidizing agents work (e.g., Tollens' reagent, Fehling's reagent)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Reduction reactions}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reduction of carbonyl compounds:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Aldehyde to primary alcohol: \ce{RCHO ->[reduction] RCH2OH}
|
|
\item Ketone to secondary alcohol: \ce{R2CO ->[reduction] R2CHOH}
|
|
\item Reducing agents: \ce{LiAlH4}, \ce{NaBH4}, \ce{H2/Pt}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reduction of carboxylic acids:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item To primary alcohol: \ce{RCOOH ->[LiAlH4] RCH2OH}
|
|
\item Requires strong reducing agent
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Condensation reactions}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Combination of molecules with elimination of small molecule (usually water).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Esterification:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Fischer esterification: \ce{RCOOH + R-OH <=>[H+] RCOOR + H2O}
|
|
\item Reversible reaction, equilibrium can be shifted
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Aldol condensation:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Self-condensation of aldehydes: \ce{2CH3CHO ->[OH-] CH3CH(OH)CH2CHO}
|
|
\item Followed by dehydration: \ce{CH3CH(OH)CH2CHO -> CH3CH=CHCHO + H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Hydrolysis reactions}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Ester hydrolysis:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Acidic: \ce{RCOOR + H2O <=>[H+] RCOOH + R-OH}
|
|
\item Basic (saponification): \ce{RCOOR + NaOH -> RCOONa + R-OH}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Amide hydrolysis:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Acidic: \ce{RCONH2 + H2O + HCl ->[heat] RCOOH + NH4Cl}
|
|
\item Basic: \ce{RCONH2 + NaOH ->[heat] RCOONa + NH3 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Named reactions and tests}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Silver mirror reaction (Tollens' test)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Test for aldehydes; distinguishes aldehydes from ketones.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Tollens' reagent - ammoniacal silver nitrate solution \ce{[Ag(NH3)2]+}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} Aldehydes are oxidized to carboxylic acids while silver ions are reduced to metallic silver, forming a silver mirror on the test tube.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Preparation of reagent:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{AgNO3 + NaOH -> AgOH v + NaNO3}
|
|
\item \ce{AgOH + 2NH3 -> [Ag(NH3)2]OH} (soluble complex)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction with aldehyde:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{RCHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + 2OH- -> RCOO- + 2Ag v + 4NH3 + H2O}
|
|
\item Formaldehyde: \ce{HCHO + 4[Ag(NH3)2]+ + 4OH- -> CO3^2- + 4Ag v + 8NH3 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Glucose (reducing sugar): \ce{C6H12O6 + 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + 2OH- -> C6H12O7 + 2Ag v + 4NH3}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Observation:} Silver mirror forms on the inner surface of the test tube (positive test).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Note:} Ketones do not give this reaction. Some $\alpha$-hydroxy ketones may give weakly positive results.
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Fehling's test (Benedict's test)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Test for reducing sugars and aldehydes.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Fehling's solution (mixture of Fehling's A and B)
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Fehling's A: Copper(II) sulfate solution \ce{CuSO4}
|
|
\item Fehling's B: Alkaline sodium potassium tartrate solution (Rochelle salt)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} Aldehydes reduce Cu$^{2+}$ (blue) to Cu$_2$O (red-brown precipitate).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{RCHO + 2Cu^2+ + 5OH- ->[heat] RCOO- + Cu2O v + 3H2O}
|
|
\item With glucose: \ce{C6H12O6 + 2Cu^2+ + 5OH- -> C6H12O7 + Cu2O v + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Observation:} Blue solution turns to red-brown precipitate of cuprous oxide.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Benedict's reagent:} Similar test using copper citrate complex instead of tartrate.
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Iodine clock reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Demonstration of reaction kinetics and reaction mechanisms.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} A sudden color change occurs after a predictable time period, demonstrating the relationship between reaction rate and concentration.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common version (Landolt reaction):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Reaction A (slow): \ce{H2O2 + 2I- + 2H+ -> I2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Reaction B (fast): \ce{I2 + 2S2O3^2- -> 2I- + S4O6^2-}
|
|
\item When thiosulfate is consumed, free iodine reacts with starch indicator
|
|
\item \ce{I2 + starch -> blue complex}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Alternative version (Dushman reaction):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{IO3- + 3HSO3- -> I- + 3SO4^2- + 3H+} (slow)
|
|
\item \ce{IO3- + 5I- + 6H+ -> 3I2 + 3H2O} (fast, when HSO$_3^-$ depleted)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Observation:} Solution remains colorless for a fixed time, then suddenly turns deep blue.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Variables affecting clock time:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Concentration of reactants
|
|
\item Temperature
|
|
\item Presence of catalysts
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Biuret test}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Test for proteins and peptide bonds; detects presence of peptide linkages.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Biuret reagent (copper sulfate in alkaline solution)
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{CuSO4} in dilute \ce{NaOH} solution
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} Peptide bonds form a colored complex with Cu$^{2+}$ ions in alkaline solution.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:} Copper ions coordinate with nitrogen atoms of peptide bonds, forming a violet-purple complex.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Named after:} Biuret \ce{H2N-CO-NH-CO-NH2}, the simplest compound that gives this test.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Observation:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Negative (no protein): Blue color (from Cu$^{2+}$ ions)
|
|
\item Positive (protein present): Violet to purple color
|
|
\item Intensity depends on number of peptide bonds
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Requirements:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item At least two peptide bonds required for positive test
|
|
\item Single amino acids do not give positive result
|
|
\item Dipeptides give weak positive result
|
|
\item Tripeptides and proteins give strong positive result
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Application:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Qualitative test for proteins
|
|
\item Semi-quantitative determination of protein concentration
|
|
\item Used in biochemistry and food analysis
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Lucas test}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Distinguish between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Lucas reagent (anhydrous \ce{ZnCl2} in concentrated \ce{HCl})
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} Alcohols react with HCl in presence of \ce{ZnCl2} to form alkyl chlorides (insoluble, appears as cloudiness).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{ROH + HCl ->[ZnCl2] RCl + H2O}
|
|
\item Rate: Tertiary > Secondary > Primary
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Observations:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Tertiary alcohol: Immediate cloudiness (turbidity)
|
|
\item Secondary alcohol: Cloudiness within 5-10 minutes
|
|
\item Primary alcohol: No reaction at room temperature
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Diazotization reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Formation of diazonium salts from primary aromatic amines.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Sodium nitrite (\ce{NaNO2}) and dilute \ce{HCl} at 0-5$^\circ$C
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{C6H5NH2 + NaNO2 + 2HCl ->[cold] C6H5N2+Cl- + NaCl + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Temperature must be kept low to prevent decomposition
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Applications:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Azo dye synthesis (coupling with phenols or aromatic amines)
|
|
\item Sandmeyer reaction (replacement of diazonium group)
|
|
\item Gattermann reaction
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Friedel-Crafts reactions}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Friedel-Crafts alkylation:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{C6H6 + RCl ->[AlCl3] C6H5R + HCl}
|
|
\item Introduces alkyl group onto aromatic ring
|
|
\item Catalyst: \ce{AlCl3} or \ce{FeCl3}
|
|
\item Problem: Polyalkylation and rearrangement
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Friedel-Crafts acylation:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{C6H6 + RCOCl ->[AlCl3] C6H5COR + HCl}
|
|
\item Introduces acyl group onto aromatic ring
|
|
\item More controlled than alkylation (no polyacylation)
|
|
\item Forms ketones
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Kolbe's reaction (Kolbe-Schmitt reaction)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Synthesis of salicylic acid from phenol.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{C6H5OH + NaOH -> C6H5ONa + H2O}
|
|
\item \ce{C6H5ONa + CO2 ->[heat, pressure] C6H4(OH)COONa} (sodium salicylate)
|
|
\item \ce{C6H4(OH)COONa + HCl -> C6H4(OH)COOH + NaCl} (salicylic acid)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Conditions:} High pressure (5-7 atm), 125-130$^\circ$C
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Application:} Industrial production of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Cannizzaro reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Disproportionation of aldehydes lacking $\alpha$-hydrogen.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} In strong base, one aldehyde molecule is oxidized to carboxylate, another is reduced to alcohol.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{2RCHO + NaOH ->[no alpha-H] RCOONa + RCH2OH}
|
|
\item Example: \ce{2C6H5CHO + NaOH -> C6H5COONa + C6H5CH2OH}
|
|
\item Formaldehyde: \ce{2HCHO + NaOH -> HCOONa + CH3OH}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Requirement:} Aldehyde must lack $\alpha$-hydrogen atoms.
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Haloform reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Test for methyl ketones; produces haloform.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Halogen (\ce{I2}, \ce{Br2}, or \ce{Cl2}) in alkaline solution
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{CH3COR + 3I2 + 4NaOH -> RCOONa + CHI3 v + 3NaI + 3H2O}
|
|
\item Iodoform (\ce{CHI3}): Yellow precipitate with characteristic odor
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Positive test:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Methyl ketones: \ce{R-CO-CH3}
|
|
\item Acetaldehyde: \ce{CH3CHO}
|
|
\item Ethanol: \ce{CH3CH2OH} (oxidized to acetaldehyde first)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Iodoform test:} Specific for compounds with \ce{CH3CO-} or \ce{CH3CH(OH)-} structure.
|
|
|
|
\section{Chemical nomenclature: Prefixes and suffixes}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Numerical prefixes}
|
|
|
|
\begin{table}[H]
|
|
\centering
|
|
\begin{tabular}{lll}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Prefix & Number & Example \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
mono- & 1 & Monoxide, monohydrate \\
|
|
di- & 2 & Dioxide, dichloride \\
|
|
tri- & 3 & Trichloride, trioxide \\
|
|
tetra- & 4 & Tetrachloride, tetrahedral \\
|
|
penta- & 5 & Pentoxide, pentane \\
|
|
hexa- & 6 & Hexane, hexafluoride \\
|
|
hepta- & 7 & Heptane, heptoxide \\
|
|
octa- & 8 & Octane, octahedron \\
|
|
nona- & 9 & Nonane, nonoxide \\
|
|
deca- & 10 & Decane, decahydrate \\
|
|
undeca- & 11 & Undecane \\
|
|
dodeca- & 12 & Dodecane, dodecahedron \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{tabular}
|
|
\end{table}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Hydrocarbon chain prefixes}
|
|
|
|
\begin{table}[H]
|
|
\centering
|
|
\begin{tabular}{llll}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Prefix & \# Carbons & Root Word & Example \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
meth- & 1 & Methane & Methanol, methyl \\
|
|
eth- & 2 & Ethane & Ethanol, ethyl \\
|
|
prop- & 3 & Propane & Propanol, propyl \\
|
|
but- & 4 & Butane & Butanol, butyl \\
|
|
pent- & 5 & Pentane & Pentanol, pentyl \\
|
|
hex- & 6 & Hexane & Hexanol, hexyl \\
|
|
hept- & 7 & Heptane & Heptanol, heptyl \\
|
|
oct- & 8 & Octane & Octanol, octyl \\
|
|
non- & 9 & Nonane & Nonanol, nonyl \\
|
|
dec- & 10 & Decane & Decanol, decyl \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{tabular}
|
|
\end{table}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Structural and positional prefixes}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{2.5cm}p{5cm}p{5.5cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Prefix & Meaning & Example \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Prefix & Meaning & Example \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
iso- & Branched (methyl on penultimate carbon) & Isopropanol, isobutane \\
|
|
neo- & New, highly branched & Neopentane \\
|
|
sec- & Secondary (2$^\circ$, attached to 2 carbons) & sec-Butanol \\
|
|
tert- & Tertiary (3$^\circ$, attached to 3 carbons) & tert-Butanol \\
|
|
cyclo- & Cyclic/ring structure & Cyclohexane, cyclopropane \\
|
|
ortho- (o-) & Adjacent positions on benzene (1,2) & o-Xylene, o-cresol \\
|
|
meta- (m-) & Separated by one carbon on benzene (1,3) & m-Xylene \\
|
|
para- (p-) & Opposite positions on benzene (1,4) & p-Xylene, p-cresol \\
|
|
cis- & Same side (geometric isomer) & cis-2-Butene \\
|
|
trans- & Opposite sides (geometric isomer) & trans-2-Butene \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Halogen prefixes}
|
|
|
|
\begin{table}[H]
|
|
\centering
|
|
\begin{tabular}{lll}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Prefix & Halogen & Example \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
fluoro- & Fluorine (F) & Fluoromethane, fluorobenzene \\
|
|
chloro- & Chlorine (Cl) & Chloroform, chlorobenzene \\
|
|
bromo- & Bromine (Br) & Bromoethane, bromobenzene \\
|
|
iodo- & Iodine (I) & Iodoform, iodobenzene \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{tabular}
|
|
\end{table}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Other common prefixes}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{2.5cm}p{5cm}p{5.5cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Prefix & Meaning & Example \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Prefix & Meaning & Example \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
per- & Maximum/complete & Perchloric acid, peroxide \\
|
|
hypo- & Less than normal oxidation state & Hypochlorous acid \\
|
|
thio- & Sulfur replacing oxygen & Thiosulfate, thiol \\
|
|
oxy- & Oxygen in compound & Oxytocin \\
|
|
nitro- & \ce{-NO2} group & Nitrobenzene, nitroglycerin \\
|
|
nitroso- & \ce{-NO} group & Nitrosobenzene \\
|
|
amino- & \ce{-NH2} group & Aminobenzoic acid \\
|
|
hydroxy- & \ce{-OH} group & Hydroxybenzoic acid \\
|
|
oxo- & \ce{=O} group (ketone/aldehyde) & Oxoacid \\
|
|
carb- & Carbon & Carbide, carbon \\
|
|
cyan- & \ce{-CN} group & Cyanide, cyanohydrin \\
|
|
acet- & Related to acetic acid/acetyl & Acetate, acetone, acetyl \\
|
|
form- & Related to formic acid/formyl & Formate, formaldehyde \\
|
|
benz- & Related to benzene & Benzyl, benzoyl, benzoic \\
|
|
phenyl- & \ce{C6H5-} group & Phenylamine (aniline) \\
|
|
vinyl- & \ce{CH2=CH-} group & Vinyl chloride \\
|
|
allyl- & \ce{CH2=CH-CH2-} group & Allyl alcohol \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Functional group suffixes}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{2.5cm}p{4cm}p{6.5cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Suffix & Functional Group & Example \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Suffix & Functional Group & Example \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
-ane & Alkane (single bonds) & Methane, ethane, propane \\
|
|
-ene & Alkene (double bond) & Ethene (ethylene), propene \\
|
|
-yne & Alkyne (triple bond) & Ethyne (acetylene), propyne \\
|
|
-yl & Alkyl group (substituent) & Methyl, ethyl, propyl \\
|
|
-ol & Alcohol (\ce{-OH}) & Methanol, ethanol, phenol \\
|
|
-al & Aldehyde (\ce{-CHO}) & Methanal (formaldehyde), ethanal \\
|
|
-one & Ketone (\ce{C=O}) & Acetone (propanone), butanone \\
|
|
-oic acid & Carboxylic acid (\ce{-COOH}) and Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) \\
|
|
-oate & Ester (\ce{-COO-}) & Ethyl acetate (ethyl ethanoate) \\
|
|
-amide & Amide (\ce{-CONH2}) & Acetamide, formamide \\
|
|
-amine & Amine (\ce{-NH2}) & Methylamine, ethylamine \\
|
|
-nitrile & Nitrile (\ce{-CN}) & Acetonitrile, propionitrile \\
|
|
-ether & Ether (\ce{-O-}) & Diethyl ether \\
|
|
-thiol & Thiol (\ce{-SH}) & Ethanethiol, methanethiol \\
|
|
-ate & Salt of acid & Sulfate, nitrate, acetate \\
|
|
-ite & Salt of -ous acid & Sulfite, nitrite \\
|
|
-ide & Binary compound/ion & Chloride, oxide, sulfide \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Acid nomenclature patterns}
|
|
|
|
\begin{table}[H]
|
|
\centering
|
|
\begin{tabular}{llll}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Oxidation State & Acid Name & Salt Name & Example \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
Highest & per-...-ic acid & per-...-ate & Perchloric acid/perchlorate \\
|
|
High & -ic acid & -ate & Sulfuric acid/sulfate \\
|
|
Low & -ous acid & -ite & Sulfurous acid/sulfite \\
|
|
Lowest & hypo-...-ous acid & hypo-...-ite & Hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{tabular}
|
|
\end{table}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{HClO4} - Perchloric acid $\rightarrow$ Perchlorate (\ce{ClO4-})
|
|
\item \ce{HClO3} - Chloric acid $\rightarrow$ Chlorate (\ce{ClO3-})
|
|
\item \ce{HClO2} - Chlorous acid $\rightarrow$ Chlorite (\ce{ClO2-})
|
|
\item \ce{HClO} - Hypochlorous acid $\rightarrow$ Hypochlorite (\ce{ClO-})
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\section{Name of organic compounds}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Hydrocarbons and their Halogen derivatives}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3cm}p{7cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
Methane & \ce{CH4} & Natural gas, simplest alkane \\
|
|
Ethane & \ce{C2H6} & Component of natural gas \\
|
|
Propane & \ce{C3H8} & LPG fuel, refrigerant \\
|
|
Butane & \ce{C4H10} & Lighter fuel, aerosol propellant \\
|
|
Isobutane & \ce{(CH3)3CH} & Branched isomer of butane, refrigerant \\
|
|
Pentane & \ce{C5H12} & Laboratory solvent \\
|
|
Hexane & \ce{C6H14} & Extraction solvent \\
|
|
Octane & \ce{C8H18} & Gasoline component \\
|
|
Paraffin & \ce{C_nH_{2n+2}} & Wax, candles (long chain alkanes) \\
|
|
Ethylene & \ce{C2H4} & Fruit ripening agent, plastic production \\
|
|
Propylene & \ce{C3H6} & Polypropylene production \\
|
|
Acetylene & \ce{C2H2} & Welding gas, illumination \\
|
|
Isoprene & \ce{C5H8} & Natural rubber monomer \\
|
|
Methyl chloride & \ce{CH3Cl} & Refrigerant, methylating agent \\
|
|
Chloroform & \ce{CHCl3} & Solvent, formerly anesthetic \\
|
|
Carbon tetrachloride & \ce{CCl4} & Solvent, fire extinguisher (obsolete) \\
|
|
Freon-12 & \ce{CCl2F2} & Refrigerant (CFC, now banned) \\
|
|
Teflon monomer & \ce{CF2=CF2} & Tetrafluoroethylene, non-stick coating \\
|
|
DDT & \ce{(ClC6H4)2CHCCl3} & Insecticide (banned in many countries) \\
|
|
Vinyl chloride & \ce{CH2=CHCl} & PVC plastic monomer \\
|
|
Methylene chloride & \ce{CH2Cl2} & Paint stripper, degreaser \\
|
|
Bromoform & \ce{CHBr3} & Laboratory reagent, formerly sedative \\
|
|
Iodoform & \ce{CHI3} & Antiseptic (yellow crystalline) \\
|
|
Ethyl bromide & \ce{C2H5Br} & Local anesthetic, refrigerant \\
|
|
Methyl iodide & \ce{CH3I} & Methylating agent in synthesis \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Alicyclic compounds and aromatic compounds}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3cm}p{7cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
Cyclopropane & \ce{C3H6} & Anesthetic (cyclic alkane) \\
|
|
Cyclohexane & \ce{C6H12} & Solvent, nylon precursor \\
|
|
Benzene & \ce{C6H6} & Aromatic solvent, carcinogenic \\
|
|
Toluene & \ce{C6H5CH3} & Solvent, paint thinner, TNT precursor \\
|
|
Xylene & \ce{C6H4(CH3)2} & Solvent, histology (three isomers) \\
|
|
Styrene & \ce{C6H5CH=CH2} & Polystyrene monomer, plastic foam \\
|
|
Cumene & \ce{C6H5CH(CH3)2} & Phenol production, isopropylbenzene \\
|
|
Naphthalene & \ce{C10H8} & Mothballs, formerly used in lighting \\
|
|
Anthracene & \ce{C14H10} & Dye production, organic semiconductor \\
|
|
Phenanthrene & \ce{C14H10} & PAH compound, synthesis precursor \\
|
|
Biphenyl & \ce{C6H5-C6H5} & Heat transfer fluid, citrus preservative \\
|
|
TNT & \ce{C6H2(NO2)3CH3} & Explosive (trinitrotoluene) \\
|
|
Picric acid & \ce{C6H2(NO2)3OH} & Explosive, yellow dye \\
|
|
Aniline & \ce{C6H5NH2} & Dye production, rubber processing \\
|
|
Nitrobenzene & \ce{C6H5NO2} & Aniline precursor, shoe polish odor \\
|
|
Benzyl chloride & \ce{C6H5CH2Cl} & Synthesis intermediate, lachrymator \\
|
|
Chlorobenzene & \ce{C6H5Cl} & Solvent, DDT production \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Alcohol, phenols, ketones and aldehyde}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{6.5cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
Methanol & \ce{CH3OH} & Wood alcohol, fuel, toxic \\
|
|
Ethanol & \ce{C2H5OH} & Drinking alcohol, solvent, fuel \\
|
|
Isopropanol & \ce{(CH3)2CHOH} & Rubbing alcohol, disinfectant \\
|
|
Butanol & \ce{C4H9OH} & Solvent, plasticizer \\
|
|
Ethylene glycol & \ce{HOCH2CH2OH} & Antifreeze, polyester precursor \\
|
|
Phenol & \ce{C6H5OH} & Disinfectant, plastic precursor, caustic \\
|
|
Cresol & \ce{CH3C6H4OH} & Disinfectant, wood preservative \\
|
|
Resorcinol & \ce{C6H4(OH)2} & Adhesives, dyes, antiseptic \\
|
|
Hydroquinone & \ce{C6H4(OH)2} & Photo developer, skin lightener \\
|
|
Catechol & \ce{C6H4(OH)2} & Antioxidant, photo developer \\
|
|
Formaldehyde & \ce{HCHO} & Preservative, disinfectant, resin \\
|
|
Acetaldehyde & \ce{CH3CHO} & Acetic acid precursor, flavor \\
|
|
Benzaldehyde & \ce{C6H5CHO} & Almond odor, flavoring \\
|
|
Acetone & \ce{CH3COCH3} & Nail polish remover, solvent \\
|
|
Methyl ethyl ketone & \ce{CH3COC2H5} & Paint remover, MEK solvent \\
|
|
Camphor & \ce{C10H16O} & Medicinal, moth repellent, plasticizer \\
|
|
Vanillin & \ce{C8H8O3} & Vanilla flavoring from vanilla beans \\
|
|
Cinnamaldehyde & \ce{C6H5CH=CHCHO} & Cinnamon flavor and odor \\
|
|
Menthol & \ce{C10H20O} & Cooling sensation, mint flavor \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Carboxylic acids and esters}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{6.5cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
Formic acid & \ce{HCOOH} & Ant venom, leather tanning, antibacterial \\
|
|
Acetic acid & \ce{CH3COOH} & Vinegar (5\%), food preservative, solvent \\
|
|
Propionic acid & \ce{C2H5COOH} & Food preservative, mold inhibitor \\
|
|
Butyric acid & \ce{C3H7COOH} & Rancid butter odor, flavoring \\
|
|
Valeric acid & \ce{C4H9COOH} & Unpleasant odor, pharmaceutical intermediate \\
|
|
Caproic acid & \ce{C5H11COOH} & Goat odor, flavoring agent \\
|
|
Palmitic acid & \ce{C15H31COOH} & Palm oil, soap making, saturated fat \\
|
|
Stearic acid & \ce{C17H35COOH} & Candles, soap, cosmetics, saturated fat \\
|
|
Oleic acid & \ce{C17H33COOH} & Olive oil, unsaturated fatty acid \\
|
|
Linoleic acid & \ce{C17H31COOH} & Essential fatty acid, polyunsaturated \\
|
|
Oxalic acid & \ce{HOOC-COOH} & Rust remover, toxic (kidney stones) \\
|
|
Malonic acid & \ce{HOOC-CH2-COOH} & Synthesis intermediate, barbiturate precursor \\
|
|
Citric acid & \ce{C6H8O7} & Citrus fruits, food acidulant, chelator \\
|
|
Tartaric acid & \ce{C4H6O6} & Grapes, baking powder, wine making \\
|
|
Malic acid & \ce{C4H6O5} & Apples, sour taste in fruits \\
|
|
Lactic acid & \ce{CH3CH(OH)COOH} & Sour milk, muscle fatigue, fermentation \\
|
|
Benzoic acid & \ce{C6H5COOH} & Food preservative, antifungal \\
|
|
Salicylic acid & \ce{C6H4(OH)COOH} & Aspirin precursor, acne treatment \\
|
|
Phthalic acid & \ce{C6H4(COOH)2} & Plasticizer, polyester resin \\
|
|
Methyl formate & \ce{HCOOCH3} & Fumigant, solvent, tobacco flavoring \\
|
|
Ethyl acetate & \ce{CH3COOC2H5} & Nail polish remover, fruity odor \\
|
|
Butyl acetate & \ce{CH3COOC4H9} & Banana oil, lacquer solvent \\
|
|
Methyl salicylate & \ce{C6H4(OH)COOCH3} & Wintergreen oil, muscle pain relief \\
|
|
Ethyl butyrate & \ce{C3H7COOC2H5} & Pineapple flavor, perfume \\
|
|
Amyl acetate & \ce{CH3COOC5H11} & Banana oil, pear flavor \\
|
|
Nitroglycerin & \ce{C3H5(ONO2)3} & Explosive, angina medication (vasodilator) \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Amines, amides and nitriles}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{6.5cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
Methylamine & \ce{CH3NH2} & Fishy odor, pharmaceutical intermediate \\
|
|
Ethylamine & \ce{C2H5NH2} & Solvent, dye intermediate \\
|
|
Dimethylamine & \ce{(CH3)2NH} & Leather tanning, rocket fuel component \\
|
|
Trimethylamine & \ce{(CH3)3N} & Fishy odor in spoiled fish \\
|
|
Aniline & \ce{C6H5NH2} & Dye production, rubber chemicals, toxic \\
|
|
Phenylethylamine & \ce{C6H5CH2CH2NH2} & Neurotransmitter, chocolate component \\
|
|
Pyridine & \ce{C5H5N} & Solvent, denaturant, unpleasant odor \\
|
|
Putrescine & \ce{H2N(CH2)4NH2} & Decaying flesh odor, diamine \\
|
|
Cadaverine & \ce{H2N(CH2)5NH2} & Corpse odor, diamine \\
|
|
Ethanolamine & \ce{HOCH2CH2NH2} & Detergent, gas scrubbing, emulsifier \\
|
|
Formamide & \ce{HCONH2} & Solvent, softener \\
|
|
Acetamide & \ce{CH3CONH2} & Plasticizer, solvent \\
|
|
Urea & \ce{(NH2)2CO} & Fertilizer, animal feed, cosmetics \\
|
|
Polyacrylamide & {[-\ce{CH2CH(CONH2)}-]$_n$} & Water treatment, gel electrophoresis \\
|
|
Paracetamol & \ce{CH3CONHC6H4OH} & Acetaminophen, pain reliever, fever reducer \\
|
|
Caffeine & \ce{C8H10N4O2} & Coffee stimulant, central nervous system \\
|
|
Nicotine & \ce{C10H14N2} & Tobacco alkaloid, highly addictive, toxic \\
|
|
Acetonitrile & \ce{CH3CN} & HPLC solvent, extraction \\
|
|
Acrylonitrile & \ce{CH2=CHCN} & Acrylic fiber, ABS plastic monomer \\
|
|
Adiponitrile & \ce{NC(CH2)4CN} & Nylon-66 precursor \\
|
|
Benzonitrile & \ce{C6H5CN} & Solvent, chemical intermediate \\
|
|
Hydrogen cyanide & \ce{HCN} & Extremely toxic gas, fumigant, gold extraction \\
|
|
Cyanamide & \ce{H2NCN} & Fertilizer, calcium cyanamide \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Thiols and thioethers}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{3.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{6.5cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
Common Name & Formula/Structure & Description/Use \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
Methanethiol & \ce{CH3SH} & Rotten cabbage odor, natural gas odorant \\
|
|
Ethanethiol & \ce{C2H5SH} & Skunk spray component, LPG odorant \\
|
|
Propanethiol & \ce{C3H7SH} & Onion lachrymator precursor \\
|
|
Butanethiol & \ce{C4H9SH} & Skunk secretion, extremely foul odor \\
|
|
Thiophenol & \ce{C6H5SH} & Extremely foul odor, chemical intermediate \\
|
|
Glutathione & \ce{C10H17N3O6S} & Antioxidant tripeptide, detoxification \\
|
|
Lipoic acid & \ce{C8H14O2S2} & Antioxidant, enzyme cofactor \\
|
|
Mercaptoethanol & \ce{HSCH2CH2OH} & Reducing agent in biochemistry \\
|
|
Allicin & \ce{C6H10OS2} & Garlic odor and flavor, antibiotic \\
|
|
Dimethyl sulfide & \ce{(CH3)2S} & Ocean smell, cabbage odor \\
|
|
Diethyl sulfide & \ce{(C2H5)2S} & Garlic-like odor, solvent \\
|
|
Mustard gas & \ce{(ClCH2CH2)2S} & Chemical warfare agent, extremely toxic \\
|
|
Dimethyl sulfoxide & \ce{(CH3)2SO} & DMSO, solvent, penetrates skin \\
|
|
Biotin & \ce{C10H16N2O3S} & Vitamin B7, coenzyme, hair/nail health \\
|
|
Thioacetone & \ce{(CH3)2CS} & Worst smell in history, evacuated city \\
|
|
Thiourea & \ce{(NH2)2CS} & Photography, textile processing \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Organic compounds in everyday life}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Carbohydrates and sugars}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Glucose (\ce{C6H12O6})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Blood sugar, dextrose, grape sugar
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{CHO-[:270]C(-[:180]OH)(-[:0]H)-[:270]C(-[:0]OH)(-[:180]H)-[:270]C(-[:180]OH)(-[:0]H)-[:270]C(-[:0]OH)(-[:180]H)-[:270]CH_2OH}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Most important monosaccharide in human metabolism
|
|
\item Exists as cyclic form (pyranose) in solution
|
|
\item Reducing sugar (positive Fehling's and Benedict's test)
|
|
\item Primary energy source for cellular respiration
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Occurrence:} Blood, fruits, honey, cornstarch hydrolysis
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Fructose (\ce{C6H12O6})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Fruit sugar, levulose
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{CH_2OH-[:270]C(=[:180]O)-[:270]C(-[:0]OH)(-[:180]H)-[:270]C(-[:180]OH)(-[:0]H)-[:270]C(-[:0]OH)(-[:180]H)-[:270]CH_2OH}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Sweetest natural sugar
|
|
\item Ketose (ketone sugar) rather than aldose
|
|
\item Forms furanose ring in solution
|
|
\item Reducing sugar
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Occurrence:} Fruits, honey, high-fructose corn syrup
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sucrose (\ce{C12H22O11})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Table sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} Disaccharide of glucose and fructose linked by $\alpha$(1$\to$2) glycosidic bond
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Non-reducing sugar (no free anomeric carbon)
|
|
\item Highly soluble in water
|
|
\item Hydrolyzes to glucose and fructose (invert sugar)
|
|
\item \ce{C12H22O11 + H2O ->[H+ or invertase] C6H12O6 (glucose) + C6H12O6 (fructose)}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Occurrence:} Sugar cane, sugar beets, maple syrup
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Lactose (\ce{C12H22O11})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Milk sugar
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} Disaccharide of glucose and galactose linked by $\beta$(1$\to$4) glycosidic bond
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Reducing sugar (free anomeric carbon on glucose)
|
|
\item Less sweet than sucrose
|
|
\item Hydrolyzed by lactase enzyme
|
|
\item Lactose intolerance results from lactase deficiency
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Occurrence:} Mammalian milk (cow milk: 4-5\%, human milk: 6-7\%)
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Maltose (\ce{C12H22O11})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Malt sugar
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} Disaccharide of two glucose units linked by $\alpha$(1$\to$4) glycosidic bond
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Reducing sugar
|
|
\item Product of starch hydrolysis
|
|
\item Hydrolyzed by maltase enzyme
|
|
\item Important in brewing and bread making
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Occurrence:} Germinating grains, malt, partial starch digestion
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Starch (\ce{(C6H10O5)n})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} None (standard name)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} Polymer of glucose units; mixture of amylose (linear, $\alpha$(1$\to$4) links) and amylopectin (branched, $\alpha$(1$\to$4) and $\alpha$(1$\to$6) links)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Main storage polysaccharide in plants
|
|
\item Forms blue-black complex with iodine (diagnostic test)
|
|
\item Hydrolyzed by amylase enzymes
|
|
\item Insoluble in cold water, forms colloidal suspension in hot water
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Occurrence:} Potatoes, rice, wheat, corn, all plant tubers and seeds
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Cellulose (C$_6$H$_{10}$O$_5$)$_n$}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Plant fiber
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} Linear polymer of glucose units linked by $\beta$(1$\to$4) glycosidic bonds
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Most abundant organic compound on Earth
|
|
\item Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls
|
|
\item Not digestible by humans (lack cellulase enzyme)
|
|
\item Important dietary fiber
|
|
\item Strong hydrogen bonding between chains gives high tensile strength
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Occurrence:} Plant cell walls, cotton (95\% cellulose), wood (40-50\%)
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Lipids and fats}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Fatty acids (General formula: \ce{CH3(CH2)nCOOH})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Palmitic acid (C$_{16}$H$_{32}$O$_2$): \chemfig{CH_3-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0]COOH}
|
|
\item Stearic acid (C$_{18}$H$_{36}$O$_2$): Saturated, 18-carbon chain
|
|
\item Oleic acid (C$_{18}$H$_{34}$O$_2$): Monounsaturated, one C=C double bond
|
|
\item Linoleic acid (C$_{18}$H$_{32}$O$_2$): Polyunsaturated, two C=C double bonds
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Saturated: All C-C single bonds, solid at room temperature
|
|
\item Unsaturated: Contains C=C double bonds, liquid at room temperature
|
|
\item Amphipathic: Hydrophobic tail, hydrophilic head
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Triglycerides (Fats and oils)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Fat (solid), Oil (liquid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} Ester of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules
|
|
|
|
\chemfig{CH_2(-[:90]O-[:90]C(=[:150]O)-[:30]R_1)-[:270]CH(-[:0]O-[:0]C(=[:60]O)-[:300]R_2)-[:270]CH_2(-[:270]O-[:270]C(=[:210]O)-[:330]R_3)}
|
|
|
|
where \ce{R1}, \ce{R2}, \ce{R3} are long-chain fatty acid residues
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Energy storage molecules (9 kcal/g)
|
|
\item Fats (saturated): Solid at room temperature (animal fats: lard, butter)
|
|
\item Oils (unsaturated): Liquid at room temperature (vegetable oils: olive, corn, sunflower)
|
|
\item Hydrophobic, insoluble in water
|
|
\item Undergo saponification (base hydrolysis to form soap)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Saponification reaction:}
|
|
|
|
\ce{Fat + 3NaOH -> Glycerol + 3 Soap (sodium salt of fatty acid)}
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Phospholipids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Cell membrane lipids
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} Similar to triglycerides but one fatty acid replaced by phosphate group
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Example - Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithin):}
|
|
|
|
\chemfig{CH_2(-[:90]O-[:90]C(=[:150]O)-[:30]R_1)-[:270]CH(-[:0]O-[:0]C(=[:60]O)-[:300]R_2)-[:270]CH_2(-[:270]O-[:270]P(=[:210]O)(-[:270]O^{-})(-[:330]O-[:330]CH_2-[:30]CH_2-[:330]N^{+}(CH_3)_3))}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Amphipathic molecules
|
|
\item Form lipid bilayer in cell membranes
|
|
\item Essential for membrane structure and function
|
|
\item Emulsifying agents
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Occurrence:} All cell membranes, egg yolk, soybeans
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Soaps and detergents}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Soap}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure (example - sodium stearate):}
|
|
|
|
\chemfig{CH_3-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0](-[:90])-[:0](-[:270])-[:0]COO^{-}Na^{+}}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Amphipathic: Hydrophobic tail (C$_{12}$-C$_{18}$ chain), hydrophilic head (COO$^-$)
|
|
\item Forms micelles in water
|
|
\item Lowers surface tension
|
|
\item Ineffective in hard water (forms precipitate with Ca$^{2+}$, Mg$^{2+}$)
|
|
\item Basic in aqueous solution (pH 9-10)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Preparation:} Saponification of fats with strong base (NaOH or KOH)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Mechanism of cleaning:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Hydrophobic tails dissolve in grease/oil
|
|
\item Hydrophilic heads face water
|
|
\item Forms emulsion allowing oil removal
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Detergents}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Synthetic soaps
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Types:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Anionic: Sodium alkyl sulfates (e.g., SDS, sodium dodecyl sulfate)
|
|
\item Cationic: Quaternary ammonium salts
|
|
\item Non-ionic: Polyethylene glycol derivatives
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Example - Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS):}
|
|
|
|
\chemfig{CH_3-[:0](CH_2)_{11}-[:0]O-[:0]S(=[:60]O)(=[:300]O)(-[:180]O^{-}Na^{+})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Work in hard water (do not precipitate with Ca$^{2+}$, Mg$^{2+}$)
|
|
\item More effective than soaps in acidic conditions
|
|
\item Stronger cleaning action
|
|
\item Some are non-biodegradable (environmental concern)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Vitamins}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vitamin A (Retinol, \ce{C20H30O})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Retinol, anti-xerophthalmia vitamin
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{CH_3-[:30](-[:90]CH_3)(-[:330]CH_3)-[:330]*6(-=-(-CH_3)=-=)-[:30]=[:330]-[:30]=[:330]-[:30]=[:330]-[:30]CH_2OH}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Fat-soluble vitamin
|
|
\item Important for vision (forms rhodopsin in retina)
|
|
\item Essential for growth, immune function, skin health
|
|
\item Deficiency: Night blindness, xerophthalmia (dry eyes)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Liver, fish oils, dairy products, carrots (as $\beta$-carotene precursor)
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid, \ce{C6H8O6})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Ascorbic acid, anti-scurvy vitamin
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:}
|
|
|
|
\chemfig{HO-[:30]*5(-(=O)-O-(-[:90]OH)=(-[:270]OH)-)}(-[:270]CH(-[:330]OH)-[:270]CH_2OH)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Water-soluble vitamin
|
|
\item Powerful antioxidant
|
|
\item Essential for collagen synthesis
|
|
\item Enhances iron absorption
|
|
\item Easily oxidized (degraded by heat, light, air)
|
|
\item Deficiency: Scurvy (bleeding gums, poor wound healing)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Citrus fruits, strawberries, peppers, broccoli, tomatoes
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vitamin D$_3$ (Cholecalciferol, \ce{C27H44O})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Cholecalciferol, sunshine vitamin, anti-rickets vitamin
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Fat-soluble vitamin
|
|
\item Synthesized in skin upon UV exposure
|
|
\item Regulates calcium and phosphate absorption
|
|
\item Essential for bone health
|
|
\item Deficiency: Rickets (children), osteomalacia (adults)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Sunlight exposure, fish oils, fortified milk, egg yolk
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vitamin E ($\alpha$-Tocopherol, \ce{C29H50O2})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} $\alpha$-Tocopherol, anti-sterility vitamin
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} Chromanol ring system with long phytyl side chain
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Fat-soluble vitamin
|
|
\item Major antioxidant protecting cell membranes
|
|
\item Protects polyunsaturated fatty acids from oxidation
|
|
\item Important for reproduction and immune function
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vitamin K (Phylloquinone, \ce{C31H46O2})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Phylloquinone, anti-hemorrhagic vitamin
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Fat-soluble vitamin
|
|
\item Essential for blood clotting (activates clotting factors)
|
|
\item Important for bone metabolism
|
|
\item Synthesized by intestinal bacteria
|
|
\item Deficiency: Prolonged bleeding, hemorrhage
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Green leafy vegetables (spinach, kale), liver, bacteria synthesis
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vitamin B$_1$ (Thiamine, \ce{C12H17N4OS$^+$})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Thiamine, anti-beriberi vitamin
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Water-soluble vitamin
|
|
\item Cofactor for enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism
|
|
\item Essential for nervous system function
|
|
\item Deficiency: Beriberi (nerve damage, heart failure)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Whole grains, pork, legumes, nuts
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vitamin B$_2$ (Riboflavin, \ce{C17H20N4O6})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Riboflavin
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Water-soluble vitamin
|
|
\item Component of FAD and FMN (electron carriers)
|
|
\item Essential for energy metabolism
|
|
\item Yellow-orange color, fluorescent in UV light
|
|
\item Deficiency: Cracks at corners of mouth, skin disorders
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Milk, eggs, meat, green vegetables
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vitamin B$_3$ (Niacin, \ce{C6H5NO2})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Niacin, nicotinic acid, anti-pellagra vitamin
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{*6(=-=(-COOH)-=-N=)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Water-soluble vitamin
|
|
\item Component of NAD$^+$ and NADP$^+$ (electron carriers)
|
|
\item Essential for energy metabolism and DNA repair
|
|
\item Deficiency: Pellagra (dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Meat, fish, peanuts, fortified grains
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vitamin B$_6$ (Pyridoxine, \ce{C8H11NO3})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Pyridoxine
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Water-soluble vitamin
|
|
\item Cofactor for amino acid metabolism
|
|
\item Important for neurotransmitter synthesis
|
|
\item Deficiency: Anemia, peripheral neuropathy
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Meat, fish, potatoes, chickpeas, bananas
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vitamin B$_{12}$ (Cobalamin, \ce{C63H88CoN14O14P})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Cobalamin, anti-pernicious anemia vitamin
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Water-soluble vitamin
|
|
\item Contains cobalt ion (only vitamin with metal)
|
|
\item Essential for DNA synthesis and red blood cell formation
|
|
\item Important for nervous system function
|
|
\item Requires intrinsic factor for absorption
|
|
\item Deficiency: Pernicious anemia, nerve damage
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Animal products only (meat, fish, eggs, dairy)
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Other everyday organic compounds}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Agar}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Agar-agar
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} Polysaccharide mixture of agarose and agaropectin extracted from red algae (mainly galactose units with 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Forms gel at low concentrations (0.5-2\%)
|
|
\item Melting point: 85°C, gelling point: 32-40°C (hysteresis)
|
|
\item Not digested by most bacteria
|
|
\item Stable and inert
|
|
\item Vegetarian alternative to gelatin
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Uses:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Microbiology: Culture medium for bacteria and fungi
|
|
\item Food industry: Gelling agent, stabilizer, thickener
|
|
\item Molecular biology: Gel electrophoresis
|
|
\item Cooking: Desserts, jellies (especially in Asian cuisine)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Source:} Red algae (seaweed): Gelidium, Gracilaria species
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Gelatin}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Gelatin
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} Protein derived from collagen hydrolysis; contains glycine, proline, hydroxyproline as major amino acids
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Forms thermoreversible gel
|
|
\item Melting point: 35-40°C (melts at body temperature)
|
|
\item Amphiphilic (both hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids)
|
|
\item Biodegradable
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Uses:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Food: Desserts, marshmallows, gummy candies
|
|
\item Pharmaceuticals: Capsule coating, tablet binder
|
|
\item Photography: Film emulsion
|
|
\item Cosmetics: Face masks, creams
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Source:} Animal collagen (bones, skin, connective tissue)
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Caffeine (\ce{C8H10N4O2})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Caffeine, guaranine, theine
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{*6(=N-*5(-N(-CH_3)-(=O)-N(-CH_3)-)=-(=O)-N=-)}(-[:90]CH_3)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Central nervous system stimulant
|
|
\item Alkaloid (contains nitrogen in heterocyclic ring)
|
|
\item Bitter taste
|
|
\item Sublimes at 178°C without melting
|
|
\item Blocks adenosine receptors (reduces drowsiness)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Effects:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Increases alertness and concentration
|
|
\item Mild diuretic
|
|
\item Can cause insomnia, jitters at high doses
|
|
\item Tolerance develops with regular use
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Coffee beans, tea leaves, cocoa beans, guarana, kola nuts
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Content:} Coffee (95 mg/cup), tea (47 mg/cup), cola (40 mg/can), chocolate (25 mg/bar)
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Nicotine (\ce{C10H14N2})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Nicotine
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{*6(=-*5(-=-(-[:90]CH_3)-N-)-=-(-[:0]*5(-N--=-=))=)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Highly addictive alkaloid
|
|
\item Liquid at room temperature, turns brown on exposure to air
|
|
\item Stimulant at low doses, depressant at high doses
|
|
\item Binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
|
|
\item Highly toxic (LD$_{50}$ = 0.5-1 mg/kg)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Source:} Tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum)
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Vanillin (\ce{C8H8O3})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Vanillin, vanilla flavor
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{*6(=-=(-OCH_3)-(-OH)=-(-CHO)=)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Aromatic aldehyde
|
|
\item Pleasant sweet vanilla odor
|
|
\item White crystalline solid
|
|
\item Phenolic compound (contains -OH on benzene ring)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Uses:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Flavoring agent in food and beverages
|
|
\item Fragrance in perfumes and cosmetics
|
|
\item Most used flavoring compound in the world
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Natural: Vanilla beans (pods of Vanilla planifolia orchid); Synthetic: Made from lignin or guaiacol
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Menthol (\ce{C10H20O})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Menthol, peppermint camphor
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Cyclic terpene alcohol
|
|
\item Cooling sensation (activates cold-sensitive receptors)
|
|
\item Minty odor and taste
|
|
\item Crystalline solid at room temperature
|
|
\item Local anesthetic and mild analgesic properties
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Uses:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Flavoring: Chewing gum, candy, toothpaste
|
|
\item Pharmaceuticals: Cough drops, throat lozenges, topical pain relief
|
|
\item Cigarettes: Menthol cigarettes
|
|
\item Cosmetics: Shampoos, lip balms
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Natural: Peppermint and other mint oils; Synthetic: From citronellal or thymol
|
|
|
|
\vspace{0.5cm}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Cholesterol (\ce{C27H46O})}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common name:} Cholesterol
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Steroid lipid with four fused rings (sterane core)
|
|
\item Essential component of animal cell membranes
|
|
\item Precursor for steroid hormones, bile acids, vitamin D
|
|
\item Synthesized in liver
|
|
\item Transported in blood by lipoproteins (LDL, HDL)
|
|
\item High levels associated with cardiovascular disease
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sources:} Synthesized by body; dietary sources include meat, eggs, dairy products
|
|
|
|
\section{Macromolecule}
|
|
|
|
\section{Plastics}
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end{document}
|
|
|