1535 lines
49 KiB
TeX
1535 lines
49 KiB
TeX
\documentclass[10pt,a4paper]{extarticle}
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% Package imports
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\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
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\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
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\usepackage{amsmath}
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\usepackage{chemfig}
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\usepackage[version=4]{mhchem}
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\usepackage{graphicx}
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\usepackage{geometry}
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\usepackage{hyperref}
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\usepackage{booktabs}
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\usepackage{longtable}
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\usepackage{array}
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\usepackage{float}
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% Page layout
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\geometry{
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margin=1in
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}
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% Document information
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\title{Chemistry Vocabulary}
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\author{}
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\date{}
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\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}
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\begin{document}
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\maketitle
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\section*{Introduction}
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\section{Elements and elementary substances}
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\subsection{Alkali metals}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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3 & Li & Lithium & Lithium & 6.94 \\
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11 & Na & Sodium & Natrium & 22.99 \\
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19 & K & Potassium & Kalium & 39.10 \\
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37 & Rb & Rubidium & Rubidium & 85.47 \\
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55 & Cs & Cesium & Caesium & 132.91 \\
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87 & Fr & Francium & Francium & (223) \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.5cm}p{1.8cm}p{1.8cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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Li & 180.5 & 1342 & BCC & Batteries, alloys \\
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Na & 97.7 & 883 & BCC & Reducing agent, coolant \\
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K & 63.5 & 759 & BCC & Fertilizer, gun powder \\
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Rb & 39.3 & 688 & BCC & Photoelectric cells \\
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Cs & 28.4 & 671 & BCC & Atomic clocks \\
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Fr & 27 & 677 & --- & Radioactive, no use \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Sodium (Na):} Electrolysis of molten NaCl: \ce{2NaCl ->[electrolysis] 2Na + Cl2 ^}
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\textbf{Potassium (K):} Reduction of KCl with Na at high temperature: \ce{KCl + Na ->[high T] K ^ + NaCl}
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\subsection{Alkaline earth metals}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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4 & Be & Beryllium & Beryllium & 9.01 \\
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12 & Mg & Magnesium & Magnesium & 24.31 \\
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20 & Ca & Calcium & Calcium & 40.08 \\
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38 & Sr & Strontium & Strontium & 87.62 \\
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56 & Ba & Barium & Barium & 137.33 \\
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88 & Ra & Radium & Radium & (226) \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.5cm}p{1.8cm}p{1.8cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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Be & 1287 & 2470 & HCP & Alloys, X-ray windows \\
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Mg & 650 & 1090 & HCP & Alloys, fireworks \\
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Ca & 842 & 1484 & FCC & Reducing agent, cement \\
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Sr & 777 & 1382 & FCC & Fireworks (red) \\
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Ba & 727 & 1897 & BCC & Drilling fluids \\
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Ra & 700 & 1737 & BCC & Radioactive, obsolete \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Magnesium (Mg):} Electrolysis of molten MgCl$_2$: \ce{MgCl2 ->[electrolysis] Mg + Cl2 ^}
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Alternatively, reduction of MgO with coke: \ce{MgO + C ->[high T] Mg ^ + CO ^}
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\textbf{Calcium (Ca):} Electrolysis of molten CaCl$_2$ or reduction of CaO with Al
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\subsection{Transition metals}
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\subsubsection{Elements (First Row)}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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21 & Sc & Scandium & Scandium & 44.96 \\
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22 & Ti & Titanium & Titanium & 47.87 \\
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23 & V & Vanadium & Vanadium & 50.94 \\
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24 & Cr & Chromium & Chromium & 52.00 \\
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25 & Mn & Manganese & Manganese & 54.94 \\
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26 & Fe & Iron & Ferrum & 55.85 \\
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27 & Co & Cobalt & Cobaltum & 58.93 \\
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28 & Ni & Nickel & Niccolum & 58.69 \\
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29 & Cu & Copper & Cuprum & 63.55 \\
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30 & Zn & Zinc & Zincum & 65.38 \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Important Elements (Other Rows)}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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47 & Ag & Silver & Argentum & 107.87 \\
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48 & Cd & Cadmium & Cadmium & 112.41 \\
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74 & W & Tungsten & Wolframium & 183.84 \\
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78 & Pt & Platinum & Platinum & 195.08 \\
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79 & Au & Gold & Aurum & 196.97 \\
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80 & Hg & Mercury & Hydrargyrum & 200.59 \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{longtable}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.2cm}p{4.5cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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\endfirsthead
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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\endhead
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Ti & 1668 & 3287 & HCP & Aerospace alloys, pigments \\
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V & 1910 & 3407 & BCC & Steel alloys, catalysts \\
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Cr & 1907 & 2671 & BCC & Stainless steel, plating \\
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Mn & 1246 & 2061 & Cubic & Steel production \\
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Fe & 1538 & 2862 & BCC & Construction, machinery \\
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Co & 1495 & 2927 & HCP & Alloys, magnets \\
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Ni & 1455 & 2913 & FCC & Alloys, catalysts, coins \\
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Cu & 1085 & 2562 & FCC & Electrical wire, plumbing \\
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Zn & 419.5 & 907 & HCP & Galvanization, batteries \\
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Ag & 961.8 & 2162 & FCC & Jewelry, conductors \\
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Cd & 321.1 & 767 & HCP & Batteries, pigments \\
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W & 3422 & 5555 & BCC & Light bulb filaments \\
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Pt & 1768 & 3825 & FCC & Catalysts, jewelry \\
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Au & 1064 & 2856 & FCC & Jewelry, electronics \\
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Hg & -38.8 & 356.7 & Rhombohedral & Thermometers, lamps \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{longtable}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Iron (Fe):} Reduction in blast furnace: \ce{Fe2O3 + 3CO ->[high T] 2Fe + 3CO2}
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\textbf{Copper (Cu):} Roasting sulfide ore then reduction: \ce{2Cu2S + 3O2 -> 2Cu2O + 2SO2}, then \ce{Cu2S + 2Cu2O -> 6Cu + SO2 ^}
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Alternatively, leaching and electrowinning from oxide ores.
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\textbf{Zinc (Zn):} Roasting then reduction with carbon: \ce{2ZnS + 3O2 -> 2ZnO + 2SO2}, then \ce{ZnO + C -> Zn + CO}
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\textbf{Chromium (Cr):} Reduction of Cr$_2$O$_3$ with aluminum (thermite process): \ce{Cr2O3 + 2Al -> 2Cr + Al2O3}
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\subsection{Post-transition metals}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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13 & Al & Aluminum & Aluminium & 26.98 \\
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31 & Ga & Gallium & Gallium & 69.72 \\
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49 & In & Indium & Indium & 114.82 \\
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50 & Sn & Tin & Stannum & 118.71 \\
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81 & Tl & Thallium & Thallium & 204.38 \\
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82 & Pb & Lead & Plumbum & 207.2 \\
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83 & Bi & Bismuth & Bismuthum & 208.98 \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.2cm}p{4.5cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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Al & 660.3 & 2519 & FCC & Packaging, construction \\
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Ga & 29.8 & 2204 & Orthorhombic & Semiconductors, LEDs \\
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In & 156.6 & 2072 & Tetragonal & LCD screens, solders \\
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Sn & 231.9 & 2602 & Tetragonal & Solder, coatings \\
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Tl & 304 & 1473 & HCP & Rat poison (obsolete) \\
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Pb & 327.5 & 1749 & FCC & Batteries, radiation shield \\
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Bi & 271.4 & 1564 & Rhombohedral & Alloys, cosmetics \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Aluminum (Al):} Hall-H\'eroult process (electrolysis of Al$_2$O$_3$ dissolved in molten cryolite):
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\ce{2Al2O3 ->[electrolysis] 4Al + 3O2 ^}
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\textbf{Lead (Pb):} Roasting galena (PbS) then reduction: \ce{2PbS + 3O2 -> 2PbO + 2SO2}, then \ce{PbO + C -> Pb + CO}
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\textbf{Tin (Sn):} Reduction of cassiterite (SnO$_2$) with carbon: \ce{SnO2 + 2C -> Sn + 2CO ^}
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\subsection{Metalloids}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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5 & B & Boron & Borium & 10.81 \\
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14 & Si & Silicon & Silicium & 28.09 \\
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32 & Ge & Germanium & Germanium & 72.64 \\
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33 & As & Arsenic & Arsenicum & 74.92 \\
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51 & Sb & Antimony & Stibium & 121.76 \\
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52 & Te & Tellurium & Tellurium & 127.60 \\
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84 & Po & Polonium & Polonium & (209) \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.2cm}p{4.5cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Crystal Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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B & 2075 & 4000 & Rhombohedral & Glass, detergents \\
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Si & 1414 & 3265 & Diamond cubic & Semiconductors, solar cells \\
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Ge & 938.3 & 2833 & Diamond cubic & Semiconductors, optics \\
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As & 817 & 614 (subl.) & Rhombohedral & Alloys, pesticides \\
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Sb & 630.6 & 1587 & Rhombohedral & Flame retardants, alloys \\
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Te & 449.5 & 988 & Hexagonal & Alloys, solar cells \\
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Po & 254 & 962 & Cubic & Radioactive, no common use \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Silicon (Si):} Reduction of silica (SiO$_2$) with carbon in electric furnace: \ce{SiO2 + 2C ->[high T] Si + 2CO ^}
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For ultrapure silicon (semiconductors): Trichlorosilane reduction: \ce{SiHCl3 + H2 ->[high T] Si + 3HCl}
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\subsection{Halogen}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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9 & F & Fluorine & Fluorum & 19.00 \\
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17 & Cl & Chlorine & Chlorum & 35.45 \\
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35 & Br & Bromine & Bromum & 79.90 \\
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53 & I & Iodine & Iodum & 126.90 \\
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85 & At & Astatine & Astatium & (210) \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Physical State & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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F$_2$ & -219.6 & -188.1 & Pale yellow gas & Toothpaste, Teflon \\
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Cl$_2$ & -101.5 & -34.0 & Yellow-green gas & Disinfectant, PVC \\
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Br$_2$ & -7.2 & 58.8 & Red-brown liquid & Flame retardants, dyes \\
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I$_2$ & 113.7 & 184.3 & Purple-black solid & Disinfectant, photography \\
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At$_2$ & 302 & 337 & Solid (radioactive) & No practical use \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
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\textbf{Chlorine (Cl$_2$):} Electrolysis of brine (chlor-alkali process): \ce{2NaCl + 2H2O ->[electrolysis] Cl2 ^ + H2 ^ + 2NaOH}
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Laboratory: Oxidation of HCl: \ce{MnO2 + 4HCl ->[heat] MnCl2 + Cl2 ^ + 2H2O}
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\textbf{Bromine (Br$_2$):} Oxidation of bromide in seawater: \ce{2Br- + Cl2 -> Br2 + 2Cl-}
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\textbf{Iodine (I$_2$):} Oxidation of iodide from brine or seaweed: \ce{2I- + Cl2 -> I2 + 2Cl-}
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Or from Chile saltpeter: \ce{2NaIO3 + 5NaHSO3 -> I2 + 3NaHSO4 + 2Na2SO4 + H2O}
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\textbf{Fluorine (F$_2$):} Electrolysis of KF in anhydrous HF: \ce{2HF ->[electrolysis] H2 + F2 ^}
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\subsection{Noble gases}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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2 & He & Helium & Helium & 4.00 \\
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10 & Ne & Neon & Neon & 20.18 \\
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18 & Ar & Argon & Argon & 39.95 \\
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36 & Kr & Krypton & Krypton & 83.80 \\
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54 & Xe & Xenon & Xenon & 131.29 \\
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86 & Rn & Radon & Radon & (222) \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\small
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\begin{tabular}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.5cm}p{4cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Physical State & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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He & -272.2 & -268.9 & Colorless gas & Balloons, cryogenics \\
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Ne & -248.6 & -246.0 & Colorless gas & Neon signs, lasers \\
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Ar & -189.3 & -185.8 & Colorless gas & Welding, light bulbs \\
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Kr & -157.4 & -153.2 & Colorless gas & Flash lamps, lasers \\
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Xe & -111.8 & -108.1 & Colorless gas & Anesthesia, ion drives \\
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Rn & -71 & -61.7 & Colorless gas & Radioactive tracer \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Preparation}
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Noble gases are obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air (except He and Rn).
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\textbf{Helium (He):} Extracted from natural gas wells.
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\textbf{Radon (Rn):} Decay product of radium, collected from uranium/thorium ores.
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\subsection{Other Nonmetals}
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\subsubsection{Elements}
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\begin{table}[H]
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\centering
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\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
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\toprule
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Atomic No. & Symbol & English Name & Latin Name & Rel. Atomic Mass \\
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\midrule
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1 & H & Hydrogen & Hydrogenium & 1.008 \\
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6 & C & Carbon & Carboneum & 12.01 \\
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7 & N & Nitrogen & Nitrogenium & 14.01 \\
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8 & O & Oxygen & Oxygenium & 16.00 \\
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15 & P & Phosphorus & Phosphorus & 30.97 \\
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16 & S & Sulfur & Sulfur & 32.07 \\
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34 & Se & Selenium & Selenium & 78.96 \\
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\bottomrule
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Elementary Substances}
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\begin{longtable}{p{1.3cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.6cm}p{2.3cm}p{4.3cm}}
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Form/Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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\endfirsthead
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\toprule
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Element & M.P. ($^\circ$C) & B.P. ($^\circ$C) & Form/Structure & Application/Source \\
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\midrule
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\endhead
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H$_2$ & -259.2 & -252.9 & Colorless gas & Fuel, ammonia synthesis \\
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C (graphite) & 3825 & 4827 (subl.) & Hexagonal layers & Pencils, electrodes \\
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C (diamond) & 3550 & --- & Cubic crystal & Jewelry, cutting tools \\
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C (fullerene) & --- & --- & Molecular cage & Research, electronics \\
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N$_2$ & -210.0 & -195.8 & Colorless gas & Fertilizers, inert atm. \\
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O$_2$ & -218.8 & -183.0 & Colorless gas & Respiration, combustion \\
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O$_3$ (ozone) & -192.5 & -112.0 & Blue gas & Sterilization, UV shield \\
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P (white) & 44.2 & 280 & Molecular solid & Incendiaries, match \\
|
|
P (red) & 590 & 431 (subl.) & Amorphous & Safety matches \\
|
|
P (black) & --- & --- & Layered & Research \\
|
|
S (rhombic) & 115.2 & 444.6 & Orthorhombic & Sulfuric acid, vulcanize \\
|
|
S (monoclinic) & 119 & 444.6 & Monoclinic & Allotrope of sulfur \\
|
|
Se (gray) & 221 & 685 & Hexagonal & Photocells, glass \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Preparation Methods}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Hydrogen (H$_2$):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Steam reforming of methane: \ce{CH4 + H2O <=>[catalyst][high T] CO + 3H2}
|
|
\item Electrolysis of water: \ce{2H2O ->[electrolysis] 2H2 ^ + O2 ^}
|
|
\item Laboratory: Reaction of metals with acids: \ce{Zn + 2HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Oxygen (O$_2$):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Fractional distillation of liquid air
|
|
\item Electrolysis of water: \ce{2H2O ->[electrolysis] 2H2 ^ + O2 ^}
|
|
\item Laboratory: Decomposition of KMnO$_4$: \ce{2KMnO4 ->[heat] K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2 ^}
|
|
\item Or: \ce{2KClO3 ->[MnO2, heat] 2KCl + 3O2 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Nitrogen (N$_2$):} Fractional distillation of liquid air
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Chlorine (Cl$_2$):} See Halogen section
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Sulfur (S):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Frasch process: Melting underground sulfur with superheated water
|
|
\item Recovered from petroleum refining and natural gas processing
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Phosphorus (P):} Reduction of phosphate rock with coke and silica:
|
|
|
|
\ce{2Ca3(PO4)2 + 6SiO2 + 10C ->[high T] 6CaSiO3 + 10CO ^ + P4 ^}
|
|
|
|
\section{Acids and bases ions}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Hydrogen halides}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Hydrofluoric acid}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HF} (Hydrofluoric acid, Hydrogen fluoride)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid in aqueous solution (unlike other hydrogen halides), can dissolve glass.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Etching glass: \ce{SiO2 + 4HF -> SiF4 ^ + 2H2O}
|
|
\item With calcium: \ce{Ca + 2HF -> CaF2 + H2 ^}
|
|
\item Formation of hexafluorosilicate: \ce{SiO2 + 6HF -> H2SiF6 + 2H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Hydrochloric acid}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HCl} (Hydrochloric acid, Hydrogen chloride)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, colorless gas, forms white fumes in moist air.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation by manganese dioxide: \ce{MnO2 + 4HCl ->[heat] MnCl2 + Cl2 ^ + 2H2O}
|
|
\item With ammonia: \ce{NH3 + HCl -> NH4Cl} (white smoke)
|
|
\item Dissolving metals: \ce{Fe + 2HCl -> FeCl2 + H2 ^}
|
|
\item With permanganate: \ce{2KMnO4 + 16HCl -> 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 ^ + 8H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Hydrobromic acid}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HBr} (Hydrobromic acid, Hydrogen bromide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, stronger reducing agent than HCl.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation by sulfuric acid: \ce{2HBr + H2SO4 -> Br2 + SO2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item With silver nitrate: \ce{HBr + AgNO3 -> AgBr v + HNO3} (pale yellow precipitate)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Hydroiodic acid}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HI} (Hydroiodic acid, Hydrogen iodide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strongest reducing agent among hydrogen halides.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation by sulfuric acid: \ce{8HI + H2SO4 -> 4I2 + H2S + 4H2O}
|
|
\item Reduction of Fe(III): \ce{2Fe^3+ + 2I- -> 2Fe^2+ + I2}
|
|
\item With chlorine: \ce{2HI + Cl2 -> 2HCl + I2}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Oxyacid}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Nitrogen oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HNO$_2$} (Nitrous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-N=O}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} N is +3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, unstable, exists only in solution.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{3HNO2 -> HNO3 + 2NO ^ + H2O}
|
|
\item Oxidation of iodide: \ce{2HNO2 + 2HI -> I2 + 2NO ^ + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Reduction by reducing agents: \ce{2HNO2 + 2HI -> 2NO ^ + I2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HNO$_3$} (Nitric acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]N(=[2]O)(=[:-30]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} N is +5
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strong oxidizing agent.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With copper: \ce{3Cu + 8HNO3(dilute) -> 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO ^ + 4H2O}
|
|
\item Concentrated with copper: \ce{Cu + 4HNO3(conc.) -> Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 ^ + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Nitration reaction: \ce{C6H6 + HNO3 ->[H2SO4] C6H5NO2 + H2O}
|
|
\item With phosphorus: \ce{P4 + 20HNO3 -> 4H3PO4 + 20NO2 ^ + 4H2O}
|
|
\item Passivation of iron: \ce{Fe + 6HNO3(conc.) -> Fe^3+ (passive layer)}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Sulfur oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_2$SO$_3$} (Sulfurous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]S(=[2]O)(-[:-30]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} S is +4
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, exists only in solution, reducing agent.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation by oxygen: \ce{2H2SO3 + O2 -> 2H2SO4}
|
|
\item Reduction by hydrogen sulfide: \ce{H2SO3 + 2H2S -> 3S v + 3H2O}
|
|
\item With bromine: \ce{H2SO3 + Br2 + H2O -> H2SO4 + 2HBr}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_2$SO$_4$} (Sulfuric acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{S(=[2]O)(=[:200]O)(<[:300]OH)(<:[:-20]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} S is +6
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strong dehydrating agent, strong oxidizing agent (concentrated).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With carbon (dehydration): \ce{C12H22O11 ->[H2SO4(conc.)] 12C + 11H2O}
|
|
\item Hot concentrated with copper: \ce{Cu + 2H2SO4(conc.) ->[heat] CuSO4 + SO2 ^ + 2H2O}
|
|
\item With NaCl (making HCl): \ce{NaCl + H2SO4 ->[heat] NaHSO4 + HCl ^}
|
|
\item Esterification: \ce{CH3COOH + C2H5OH <=>[H2SO4] CH3COOC2H5 + H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Phosphorus oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_3$PO$_3$} (Phosphorous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-[:30]P(=[2]O)(<[:300]OH)(<:[:-20]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} P is +3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Dibasic acid (only 2 acidic H), reducing agent.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Reduction of silver nitrate: \ce{H3PO3 + 2AgNO3 + H2O -> H3PO4 + 2Ag v + 2HNO3}
|
|
\item Disproportionation: \ce{4H3PO3 ->[heat] 3H3PO4 + PH3 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_3$PO$_4$} (Phosphoric acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]P(=[2]O)(<[:300]OH)(<:[:-20]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} P is +5
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak tribasic acid, non-oxidizing.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Dehydration to pyrophosphoric acid: \ce{2H3PO4 ->[heat] H4P2O7 + H2O}
|
|
\item With ammonia: \ce{H3PO4 + NH3 -> NH4H2PO4}
|
|
\item Esterification: \ce{H3PO4 + 3C2H5OH -> (C2H5O)3PO + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Chlorine oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HClO} (Hypochlorous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-Cl}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +1
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Very weak acid, strong oxidizing agent, unstable.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Disproportionation: \ce{3HClO -> HClO3 + 2HCl}
|
|
\item Oxidation: \ce{HClO + H2S -> HCl + S v + H2O}
|
|
\item Bleaching: \ce{HClO + [dye] -> [oxidized dye] (colorless)}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HClO$_2$} (Chlorous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]Cl(=[2]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, unstable, exists only in solution.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HClO$_3$} (Chloric acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]Cl(=[2]O)(=[:-30]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +5
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong acid, strong oxidizing agent.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation of sulfur: \ce{3S + 6HClO3 -> 3H2SO4 + 3Cl2 ^}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{8HClO3 -> 4Cl2 ^ + 6O2 ^ + 4H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HClO$_4$} (Perchloric acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]Cl(=[2]O)(=[:300]O)(=[:-20]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Cl is +7
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Very strong acid, strongest common acid, powerful oxidizing agent when hot/concentrated.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation of organic compounds: \ce{C6H12O6 + 24HClO4 ->[heat] 6CO2 ^ + 12Cl2 ^ + 18H2O}
|
|
\item With metals: \ce{Mg + 2HClO4 -> Mg(ClO4)2 + H2 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Carbon oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_2$CO$_3$} (Carbonic acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{HO-[:30]C(=[2]O)(-[:-30]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} C is +4
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak acid, unstable, exists in equilibrium with CO$_2$ and H$_2$O.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{H2CO3 <=> CO2 ^ + H2O}
|
|
\item With ammonia: \ce{H2CO3 + 2NH3 -> (NH4)2CO3}
|
|
\item Formation: \ce{CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Bromine and iodine oxyacids}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HBrO} (Hypobromous acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-Br}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Br is +1
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HBrO$_3$} (Bromic acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]Br(=[2]O)(-[:-30]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Br is +5
|
|
|
|
\textbf{HIO$_3$} (Iodic acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{H-O-[:30]I(=[2]O)(-[:-30]O)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} I is +5
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation: \ce{5HI + HIO3 -> 3I2 + 3H2O}
|
|
\item With sulfur dioxide: \ce{HIO3 + 3H2SO3 -> HI + 3H2SO4}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{H$_5$IO$_6$} (Periodic acid)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{I(=[2]O)(<:[:30]OH)(<[:-30]OH)(<:[:150]OH)(<[:210]OH)(-[:270]OH)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} I is +7
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidative cleavage of diols: Used to cleave vicinal diols (glycols) to aldehydes or ketones
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Bases from metal oxides}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Alkali metal hydroxides}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{NaOH} (Sodium hydroxide, Caustic soda, Lye)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Na is +1
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, deliquescent, corrosive.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With aluminum (amphoteric): \ce{2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O -> 2NaAlO2 + 3H2 ^}
|
|
\item With silicon dioxide: \ce{SiO2 + 2NaOH ->[heat] Na2SiO3 + H2O}
|
|
\item Saponification of esters: \ce{CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH -> CH3COONa + C2H5OH}
|
|
\item With chlorine (disproportionation): \ce{Cl2 + 2NaOH -> NaCl + NaClO + H2O}
|
|
\item With sulfur: \ce{3S + 6NaOH ->[heat] 2Na2S + Na2SO3 + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{KOH} (Potassium hydroxide, Caustic potash)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} K is +1
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, more hygroscopic than NaOH.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With CO$_2$: \ce{2KOH + CO2 -> K2CO3 + H2O}
|
|
\item Excess CO$_2$: \ce{K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O -> 2KHCO3}
|
|
\item With haloalkanes (elimination): \ce{C2H5Br + KOH ->[alcohol] C2H4 ^ + KBr + H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{LiOH} (Lithium hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Li is +1
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, used in CO$_2$ scrubbers.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item CO$_2$ absorption: \ce{2LiOH + CO2 -> Li2CO3 + H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Alkaline earth metal hydroxides}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Ca(OH)$_2$} (Calcium hydroxide, Slaked lime, Hydrated lime)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Ca is +2
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Moderately strong base, sparingly soluble in water (lime water).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With CO$_2$ (limewater test): \ce{Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 v + H2O}
|
|
\item Excess CO$_2$: \ce{CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O -> Ca(HCO3)2} (soluble)
|
|
\item With chlorine: \ce{2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2 -> CaCl2 + Ca(ClO)2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Preparation from quicklime: \ce{CaO + H2O -> Ca(OH)2} (exothermic)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Mg(OH)$_2$} (Magnesium hydroxide, Milk of magnesia)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Mg is +2
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, very sparingly soluble, antacid.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{Mg(OH)2 ->[heat] MgO + H2O}
|
|
\item With acids (antacid action): \ce{Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl -> MgCl2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Ba(OH)$_2$} (Barium hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Ba is +2
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Strong base, more soluble than Ca(OH)$_2$.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With sulfuric acid: \ce{Ba(OH)2 + H2SO4 -> BaSO4 v + 2H2O}
|
|
\item With ammonium salts (endothermic): \ce{Ba(OH)2.8H2O + 2NH4Cl -> BaCl2 + 2NH3 ^ + 10H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Ammonia and related bases}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{NH$_3$} (Ammonia)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Structure:} \chemfig{N(-[:90]H)(-[:210]H)(-[:330]H)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} N is -3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, pungent gas, very soluble in water.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Complex formation with Cu$^{2+}$: \ce{Cu^2+ + 4NH3 -> [Cu(NH3)4]^2+} (deep blue)
|
|
\item With HCl: \ce{NH3 + HCl -> NH4Cl} (white smoke)
|
|
\item Haber process: \ce{N2 + 3H2 <=>[Fe catalyst][high T, P] 2NH3}
|
|
\item Oxidation by oxygen: \ce{4NH3 + 5O2 ->[Pt catalyst] 4NO + 6H2O} (Ostwald process)
|
|
\item With chlorine: \ce{2NH3 + 3Cl2 -> N2 + 6HCl}
|
|
\item Reduction of CuO: \ce{3CuO + 2NH3 ->[heat] 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{NH$_4$OH} (Ammonium hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Formula:} NH$_4^+$ and OH$^-$ ions in aqueous solution
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} N is -3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Aqueous ammonia solution, weak base.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Precipitation of metal hydroxides: \ce{Fe^3+ + 3NH4OH -> Fe(OH)3 v + 3NH4+}
|
|
\item With excess ammonia (complex formation): \ce{Zn(OH)2 + 4NH3 -> [Zn(NH3)4]^2+ + 2OH-}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Transition metal hydroxides}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Fe(OH)$_2$} (Iron(II) hydroxide, Ferrous hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Fe is +2
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, white-green solid, easily oxidized.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Oxidation: \ce{4Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O -> 4Fe(OH)3} (turns brown)
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{Fe(OH)2 ->[heat] FeO + H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Fe(OH)$_3$} (Iron(III) hydroxide, Ferric hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Fe is +3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Very weak base, brown precipitate.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{2Fe(OH)3 ->[heat] Fe2O3 + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Al(OH)$_3$} (Aluminum hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Al is +3
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Amphoteric, white precipitate, antacid.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item With acid: \ce{Al(OH)3 + 3HCl -> AlCl3 + 3H2O}
|
|
\item With base: \ce{Al(OH)3 + NaOH -> NaAlO2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{2Al(OH)3 ->[heat] Al2O3 + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Cu(OH)$_2$} (Copper(II) hydroxide, Cupric hydroxide)
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Valence:} Cu is +2
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Properties:} Weak base, blue precipitate.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Decomposition: \ce{Cu(OH)2 ->[heat] CuO + H2O}
|
|
\item With ammonia: \ce{Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3 -> [Cu(NH3)4]^2+ + 2OH-} (deep blue solution)
|
|
\item With tartaric acid (Fehling's reagent): Forms copper tartrate complex
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\section{Ores and alloys}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Ores}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{3cm}p{6cm}p{3.5cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
English Name & Properties & Formula \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
English Name & Properties & Formula \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
Hematite & Red-brown iron ore, most important iron ore & \ce{Fe2O3} \\
|
|
Magnetite & Black magnetic iron ore, high iron content & \ce{Fe3O4} \\
|
|
Limonite & Yellow-brown hydrated iron oxide & \ce{2Fe2O3.3H2O} \\
|
|
Siderite & Iron carbonate, light colored & \ce{FeCO3} \\
|
|
Pyrite & Brass-yellow, fool's gold, used for sulfuric acid & \ce{FeS2} \\
|
|
Chalcopyrite & Brass-yellow copper ore, most abundant copper ore & \ce{CuFeS2} \\
|
|
Chalcocite & Dark gray copper sulfide & \ce{Cu2S} \\
|
|
Malachite & Green basic copper carbonate & \ce{Cu2CO3(OH)2} \\
|
|
Azurite & Blue basic copper carbonate & \ce{Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2} \\
|
|
Cuprite & Red copper oxide & \ce{Cu2O} \\
|
|
Bauxite & Reddish aluminum ore, clay-like & \ce{Al2O3.nH2O} \\
|
|
Cryolite & White, used as flux in aluminum production & \ce{Na3AlF6} \\
|
|
Corundum & Very hard aluminum oxide, includes ruby/sapphire & \ce{Al2O3} \\
|
|
Galena & Lead-gray, cubic crystals, main lead ore & \ce{PbS} \\
|
|
Cerussite & White lead carbonate & \ce{PbCO3} \\
|
|
Anglesite & White lead sulfate & \ce{PbSO4} \\
|
|
Sphalerite (Zinc blende) & Yellow-brown to black, main zinc ore & \ce{ZnS} \\
|
|
Smithsonite & White zinc carbonate & \ce{ZnCO3} \\
|
|
Zincite & Red-orange zinc oxide & \ce{ZnO} \\
|
|
Cassiterite & Brown-black tin oxide, main tin ore & \ce{SnO2} \\
|
|
Cinnabar & Bright red mercury sulfide, main mercury ore & \ce{HgS} \\
|
|
Argentite & Dark gray silver sulfide & \ce{Ag2S} \\
|
|
Calamine & Zinc silicate ore & \ce{Zn4Si2O7(OH)2.H2O} \\
|
|
Chromite & Black chromium iron oxide, main chromium ore & \ce{FeCr2O4} \\
|
|
Pyrolusite & Black manganese dioxide ore & \ce{MnO2} \\
|
|
Rhodochrosite & Pink manganese carbonate & \ce{MnCO3} \\
|
|
Rutile & Red-brown titanium dioxide & \ce{TiO2} \\
|
|
Ilmenite & Black iron titanium oxide & \ce{FeTiO3} \\
|
|
Barite & White barium sulfate, heavy & \ce{BaSO4} \\
|
|
Witherite & White barium carbonate & \ce{BaCO3} \\
|
|
Scheelite & White tungsten calcium ore & \ce{CaWO4} \\
|
|
Wolframite & Black iron manganese tungsten ore & \ce{(Fe,Mn)WO4} \\
|
|
Molybdenite & Gray, soft molybdenum sulfide & \ce{MoS2} \\
|
|
Carnallite & White-red potassium magnesium salt & \ce{KCl.MgCl2.6H2O} \\
|
|
Sylvite & White-red potassium chloride & \ce{KCl} \\
|
|
Halite (Rock salt) & Transparent-white sodium chloride & \ce{NaCl} \\
|
|
Fluorite (Fluorspar) & Colorful calcium fluoride & \ce{CaF2} \\
|
|
Limestone & White-gray calcium carbonate sedimentary rock & \ce{CaCO3} \\
|
|
Dolomite & White-pink calcium magnesium carbonate & \ce{CaMg(CO3)2} \\
|
|
Gypsum & White calcium sulfate dihydrate & \ce{CaSO4.2H2O} \\
|
|
Anhydrite & White calcium sulfate & \ce{CaSO4} \\
|
|
Apatite & Green-blue calcium phosphate & \ce{Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)} \\
|
|
Phosphorite & Gray-brown calcium phosphate rock & \ce{Ca3(PO4)2} \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Alloys}
|
|
|
|
\begin{longtable}{p{2.5cm}p{3.5cm}p{4.5cm}p{3cm}}
|
|
\toprule
|
|
English Name & Elements & Properties & Application \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endfirsthead
|
|
\toprule
|
|
English Name & Elements & Properties & Application \\
|
|
\midrule
|
|
\endhead
|
|
Steel & Fe, C (< 2\%) & Strong, hard, malleable & Construction, tools \\
|
|
Stainless steel & Fe, Cr (10-20\%), Ni & Corrosion-resistant, strong & Cutlery, medical \\
|
|
Cast iron & Fe, C (2-4\%) & Brittle, hard, good casting & Engine blocks, pipes \\
|
|
Brass & Cu (55-95\%), Zn & Golden, corrosion-resistant & Musical instruments, fittings \\
|
|
Bronze & Cu (88\%), Sn (12\%) & Hard, corrosion-resistant & Sculptures, bearings \\
|
|
Aluminum bronze & Cu, Al (5-11\%) & Strong, corrosion-resistant & Marine hardware, coins \\
|
|
Cupronickel & Cu (75\%), Ni (25\%) & Silver-colored, corrosion-resistant & Coins, marine uses \\
|
|
German silver & Cu, Ni, Zn & Silver-white, no silver & Cutlery, jewelry base \\
|
|
Phosphor bronze & Cu, Sn, P & Elastic, wear-resistant & Springs, electrical \\
|
|
Gunmetal & Cu, Sn (10\%), Zn (2\%) & Corrosion-resistant, tough & Gears, bearings \\
|
|
Duralumin & Al (94\%), Cu (4\%), Mg & Light, strong, age-hardenable & Aircraft, aerospace \\
|
|
Magnalium & Al (70-95\%), Mg & Very light, strong & Aircraft parts \\
|
|
Alnico & Al, Ni, Co, Fe & Strong magnetic & Permanent magnets \\
|
|
Solder & Sn (60\%), Pb (40\%) & Low melting point & Electrical joints \\
|
|
Lead-free solder & Sn, Cu, Ag & Low melting, no lead toxicity & Electronics \\
|
|
Pewter & Sn (85-99\%), Sb, Cu & Soft, silvery, malleable & Decorative items \\
|
|
Babbitt metal & Sn, Sb, Cu & Low friction, soft & Bearing surfaces \\
|
|
Type metal & Pb, Sn, Sb & Expands on cooling & Printing type \\
|
|
Wood's metal & Bi, Pb, Sn, Cd & Very low melting (70$^\circ$C) & Fire sprinklers, fuses \\
|
|
Rose's metal & Bi, Pb, Sn & Low melting (98$^\circ$C) & Fusible alloys \\
|
|
Nichrome & Ni (80\%), Cr (20\%) & High electrical resistance, heat-resistant & Heating elements \\
|
|
Monel metal & Ni (67\%), Cu (30\%) & Corrosion-resistant, strong & Marine, chemical \\
|
|
Invar & Fe (64\%), Ni (36\%) & Very low thermal expansion & Precision instruments \\
|
|
Permalloy & Fe (20\%), Ni (80\%) & High magnetic permeability & Transformers, sensors \\
|
|
Constantan & Cu (55\%), Ni (45\%) & Constant electrical resistance & Thermocouples \\
|
|
Manganin & Cu (86\%), Mn (12\%), Ni & Stable resistance vs. temperature & Precision resistors \\
|
|
Stellite & Co, Cr, W, C & Very hard, wear-resistant & Cutting tools \\
|
|
Hastelloy & Ni, Mo, Cr, Fe & Excellent corrosion resistance & Chemical equipment \\
|
|
Titanium alloy & Ti (90\%), Al (6\%), V (4\%) & High strength-to-weight ratio & Aerospace, implants \\
|
|
Amalgam & Hg, Ag, Sn, Cu & Soft, hardens over time & Dental fillings \\
|
|
Elektron & Mg (90\%), Al, Zn & Extremely light & Aircraft parts \\
|
|
Beryllium copper & Cu (98\%), Be (2\%) & Non-sparking, elastic & Explosion-proof tools \\
|
|
White gold & Au, Ni/Pd, Zn & White-silver appearance & Jewelry \\
|
|
Rose gold & Au (75\%), Cu (22.5\%), Ag & Pink-red color & Jewelry \\
|
|
Sterling silver & Ag (92.5\%), Cu (7.5\%) & Harder than pure silver & Jewelry, tableware \\
|
|
Britannia silver & Ag (95.8\%), Cu & Softer, higher silver content & High-end silverware \\
|
|
Nitinol & Ni (55\%), Ti (45\%) & Shape memory effect & Medical devices, actuators \\
|
|
Zamak & Zn, Al, Mg, Cu & Good castability, moderate strength & Die castings \\
|
|
Babbitt & Sn, Sb, Cu (or Pb base) & Low friction, good embeddability & Bearings \\
|
|
Bell metal & Cu (78\%), Sn (22\%) & Resonant, hard & Bells, cymbals \\
|
|
\bottomrule
|
|
\end{longtable}
|
|
|
|
\section{Reactions}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Types of reactions}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Combination reaction (Synthesis reaction)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Two or more substances combine to form a single product.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{General form:} \ce{A + B -> AB}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Formation of water: \ce{2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O}
|
|
\item Formation of ammonia: \ce{N2 + 3H2 -> 2NH3}
|
|
\item Metal oxide formation: \ce{2Mg + O2 -> 2MgO}
|
|
\item Salt formation: \ce{2Na + Cl2 -> 2NaCl}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Decomposition reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} A single compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{General form:} \ce{AB -> A + B}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate: \ce{CaCO3 ->[heat] CaO + CO2 ^}
|
|
\item Electrolysis of water: \ce{2H2O ->[electrolysis] 2H2 ^ + O2 ^}
|
|
\item Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide: \ce{2H2O2 ->[MnO2] 2H2O + O2 ^}
|
|
\item Decomposition of potassium chlorate: \ce{2KClO3 ->[heat] 2KCl + 3O2 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Displacement reaction (Substitution reaction)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} One element replaces another element in a compound.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{General form:} \ce{A + BC -> AC + B}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Zinc displacing hydrogen: \ce{Zn + 2HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2 ^}
|
|
\item Chlorine displacing bromine: \ce{Cl2 + 2NaBr -> 2NaCl + Br2}
|
|
\item Magnesium displacing copper: \ce{Mg + CuSO4 -> MgSO4 + Cu}
|
|
\item Iron displacing copper: \ce{Fe + CuSO4 -> FeSO4 + Cu}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Double displacement reaction (Metathesis reaction)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Exchange of ions between two compounds.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{General form:} \ce{AB + CD -> AD + CB}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Precipitation: \ce{AgNO3 + NaCl -> AgCl v + NaNO3}
|
|
\item Neutralization: \ce{HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O}
|
|
\item Formation of barium sulfate: \ce{BaCl2 + H2SO4 -> BaSO4 v + 2HCl}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Redox reaction (Oxidation-reduction reaction)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Transfer of electrons between species, involving change in oxidation states.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Oxidation:} Loss of electrons, increase in oxidation number.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reduction:} Gain of electrons, decrease in oxidation number.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Combustion: \ce{C + O2 -> CO2}
|
|
\item Permanganate oxidation: \ce{2KMnO4 + 5H2C2O4 + 3H2SO4 -> K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 10CO2 ^ + 8H2O}
|
|
\item Dichromate oxidation: \ce{K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl -> 2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 ^ + 7H2O}
|
|
\item Zinc-copper cell: \ce{Zn + Cu^2+ -> Zn^2+ + Cu}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Acid-base reaction (Neutralization)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{General form:} \ce{Acid + Base -> Salt + Water}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Strong acid-strong base: \ce{HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O}
|
|
\item Weak acid-strong base: \ce{CH3COOH + NaOH -> CH3COONa + H2O}
|
|
\item Dibasic acid: \ce{H2SO4 + 2KOH -> K2SO4 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Carbonate with acid: \ce{Na2CO3 + 2HCl -> 2NaCl + H2O + CO2 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Precipitation reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Formation of an insoluble solid (precipitate) from aqueous solutions.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Silver chloride: \ce{Ag+ + Cl- -> AgCl v} (white precipitate)
|
|
\item Lead iodide: \ce{Pb^2+ + 2I- -> PbI2 v} (yellow precipitate)
|
|
\item Iron(III) hydroxide: \ce{Fe^3+ + 3OH- -> Fe(OH)3 v} (brown precipitate)
|
|
\item Copper(II) hydroxide: \ce{Cu^2+ + 2OH- -> Cu(OH)2 v} (blue precipitate)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Organic reactions}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Halogenation reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Introduction of halogen atoms (F, Cl, Br, I) into organic molecules.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Free radical halogenation (alkanes):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Chlorination of methane: \ce{CH4 + Cl2 ->[UV light] CH3Cl + HCl}
|
|
\item Further substitution: \ce{CH3Cl + Cl2 -> CH2Cl2 + HCl}
|
|
\item Bromination of ethane: \ce{C2H6 + Br2 ->[UV light] C2H5Br + HBr}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Electrophilic halogenation (aromatic):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Bromination of benzene: \ce{C6H6 + Br2 ->[FeBr3] C6H5Br + HBr}
|
|
\item Chlorination of benzene: \ce{C6H6 + Cl2 ->[AlCl3] C6H5Cl + HCl}
|
|
\item Iodination of benzene: \ce{C6H6 + I2 ->[HNO3] C6H5I + HI}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Addition halogenation (alkenes):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Bromination of ethene: \ce{C2H4 + Br2 -> C2H4Br2}
|
|
\item Test for unsaturation: Decolorization of bromine water
|
|
\item Chlorination of propene: \ce{C3H6 + Cl2 -> C3H6Cl2}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Nucleophilic substitution}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Replacement of a leaving group by a nucleophile.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{S$_{\mathbf{N}}$1 mechanism (unimolecular):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Two-step process via carbocation intermediate
|
|
\item Rate depends only on substrate concentration
|
|
\item Favored by tertiary halides and polar solvents
|
|
\item Example: \ce{(CH3)3CBr + H2O -> (CH3)3COH + HBr}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{S$_{\mathbf{N}}$2 mechanism (bimolecular):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item One-step process with backside attack
|
|
\item Rate depends on both substrate and nucleophile concentration
|
|
\item Favored by primary halides and aprotic solvents
|
|
\item Inversion of configuration (Walden inversion)
|
|
\item Example: \ce{CH3Br + OH- -> CH3OH + Br-}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common nucleophiles:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Hydroxide (OH$^-$): Forms alcohols
|
|
\item Alkoxide (RO$^-$): Forms ethers
|
|
\item Cyanide (CN$^-$): Forms nitriles
|
|
\item Ammonia (NH$_3$): Forms amines
|
|
\item Water (H$_2$O): Forms alcohols (weak nucleophile)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Nucleophilic addition}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Addition of a nucleophile to a carbonyl group.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Cyanohydrin formation: \ce{CH3CHO + HCN -> CH3CH(OH)CN}
|
|
\item Grignard addition: \ce{CH3MgBr + CH2O -> CH3CH2OH} (after hydrolysis)
|
|
\item Bisulfite addition: \ce{RCHO + NaHSO3 -> RCH(OH)SO3Na}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Electrophilic addition}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Addition of an electrophile to a multiple bond.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Examples:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Hydrohalogenation: \ce{C2H4 + HBr -> C2H5Br}
|
|
\item Markovnikov's rule: H adds to carbon with more H atoms
|
|
\item Hydration: \ce{C2H4 + H2O ->[H+] C2H5OH}
|
|
\item Addition of sulfuric acid: \ce{C2H4 + H2SO4 -> C2H5OSO3H}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Elimination reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Removal of atoms or groups to form multiple bonds.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Dehydrohalogenation (E1 and E2):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item E2 mechanism: \ce{C2H5Br + KOH ->[alcohol, heat] C2H4 ^ + KBr + H2O}
|
|
\item Zaitsev's rule: Major product is more substituted alkene
|
|
\item E1 mechanism: Two-step via carbocation
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Dehydration of alcohols:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Ethanol dehydration: \ce{C2H5OH ->[H2SO4, heat] C2H4 ^ + H2O}
|
|
\item Intramolecular (forms alkene) vs intermolecular (forms ether)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Oxidation reactions}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Oxidation of alcohols:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Primary to aldehyde: \ce{RCH2OH ->[oxidation] RCHO ->[oxidation] RCOOH}
|
|
\item Secondary to ketone: \ce{R2CHOH ->[oxidation] R2CO}
|
|
\item Tertiary alcohols: Resistant to oxidation
|
|
\item Oxidizing agents: \ce{K2Cr2O7/H2SO4}, \ce{KMnO4}, \ce{CrO3}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Oxidation of aldehydes:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item To carboxylic acid: \ce{RCHO ->[oxidation] RCOOH}
|
|
\item Mild oxidizing agents work (e.g., Tollens' reagent, Fehling's reagent)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Reduction reactions}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reduction of carbonyl compounds:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Aldehyde to primary alcohol: \ce{RCHO ->[reduction] RCH2OH}
|
|
\item Ketone to secondary alcohol: \ce{R2CO ->[reduction] R2CHOH}
|
|
\item Reducing agents: \ce{LiAlH4}, \ce{NaBH4}, \ce{H2/Pt}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reduction of carboxylic acids:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item To primary alcohol: \ce{RCOOH ->[LiAlH4] RCH2OH}
|
|
\item Requires strong reducing agent
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Condensation reactions}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Definition:} Combination of molecules with elimination of small molecule (usually water).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Esterification:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Fischer esterification: \ce{RCOOH + R-OH <=>[H+] RCOOR + H2O}
|
|
\item Reversible reaction, equilibrium can be shifted
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Aldol condensation:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Self-condensation of aldehydes: \ce{2CH3CHO ->[OH-] CH3CH(OH)CH2CHO}
|
|
\item Followed by dehydration: \ce{CH3CH(OH)CH2CHO -> CH3CH=CHCHO + H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Hydrolysis reactions}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Ester hydrolysis:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Acidic: \ce{RCOOR + H2O <=>[H+] RCOOH + R-OH}
|
|
\item Basic (saponification): \ce{RCOOR + NaOH -> RCOONa + R-OH}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Amide hydrolysis:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Acidic: \ce{RCONH2 + H2O + HCl ->[heat] RCOOH + NH4Cl}
|
|
\item Basic: \ce{RCONH2 + NaOH ->[heat] RCOONa + NH3 ^}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsection{Named reactions and tests}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Silver mirror reaction (Tollens' test)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Test for aldehydes; distinguishes aldehydes from ketones.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Tollens' reagent - ammoniacal silver nitrate solution \ce{[Ag(NH3)2]+}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} Aldehydes are oxidized to carboxylic acids while silver ions are reduced to metallic silver, forming a silver mirror on the test tube.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Preparation of reagent:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{AgNO3 + NaOH -> AgOH v + NaNO3}
|
|
\item \ce{AgOH + 2NH3 -> [Ag(NH3)2]OH} (soluble complex)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction with aldehyde:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{RCHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + 2OH- -> RCOO- + 2Ag v + 4NH3 + H2O}
|
|
\item Formaldehyde: \ce{HCHO + 4[Ag(NH3)2]+ + 4OH- -> CO3^2- + 4Ag v + 8NH3 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Glucose (reducing sugar): \ce{C6H12O6 + 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + 2OH- -> C6H12O7 + 2Ag v + 4NH3}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Observation:} Silver mirror forms on the inner surface of the test tube (positive test).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Note:} Ketones do not give this reaction. Some $\alpha$-hydroxy ketones may give weakly positive results.
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Fehling's test (Benedict's test)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Test for reducing sugars and aldehydes.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Fehling's solution (mixture of Fehling's A and B)
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Fehling's A: Copper(II) sulfate solution \ce{CuSO4}
|
|
\item Fehling's B: Alkaline sodium potassium tartrate solution (Rochelle salt)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} Aldehydes reduce Cu$^{2+}$ (blue) to Cu$_2$O (red-brown precipitate).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{RCHO + 2Cu^2+ + 5OH- ->[heat] RCOO- + Cu2O v + 3H2O}
|
|
\item With glucose: \ce{C6H12O6 + 2Cu^2+ + 5OH- -> C6H12O7 + Cu2O v + 3H2O}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Observation:} Blue solution turns to red-brown precipitate of cuprous oxide.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Benedict's reagent:} Similar test using copper citrate complex instead of tartrate.
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Iodine clock reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Demonstration of reaction kinetics and reaction mechanisms.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} A sudden color change occurs after a predictable time period, demonstrating the relationship between reaction rate and concentration.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Common version (Landolt reaction):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Reaction A (slow): \ce{H2O2 + 2I- + 2H+ -> I2 + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Reaction B (fast): \ce{I2 + 2S2O3^2- -> 2I- + S4O6^2-}
|
|
\item When thiosulfate is consumed, free iodine reacts with starch indicator
|
|
\item \ce{I2 + starch -> blue complex}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Alternative version (Dushman reaction):}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{IO3- + 3HSO3- -> I- + 3SO4^2- + 3H+} (slow)
|
|
\item \ce{IO3- + 5I- + 6H+ -> 3I2 + 3H2O} (fast, when HSO$_3^-$ depleted)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Observation:} Solution remains colorless for a fixed time, then suddenly turns deep blue.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Variables affecting clock time:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Concentration of reactants
|
|
\item Temperature
|
|
\item Presence of catalysts
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Biuret test}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Test for proteins and peptide bonds; detects presence of peptide linkages.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Biuret reagent (copper sulfate in alkaline solution)
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{CuSO4} in dilute \ce{NaOH} solution
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} Peptide bonds form a colored complex with Cu$^{2+}$ ions in alkaline solution.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:} Copper ions coordinate with nitrogen atoms of peptide bonds, forming a violet-purple complex.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Named after:} Biuret \ce{H2N-CO-NH-CO-NH2}, the simplest compound that gives this test.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Observation:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Negative (no protein): Blue color (from Cu$^{2+}$ ions)
|
|
\item Positive (protein present): Violet to purple color
|
|
\item Intensity depends on number of peptide bonds
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Requirements:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item At least two peptide bonds required for positive test
|
|
\item Single amino acids do not give positive result
|
|
\item Dipeptides give weak positive result
|
|
\item Tripeptides and proteins give strong positive result
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Application:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Qualitative test for proteins
|
|
\item Semi-quantitative determination of protein concentration
|
|
\item Used in biochemistry and food analysis
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Lucas test}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Distinguish between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Lucas reagent (anhydrous \ce{ZnCl2} in concentrated \ce{HCl})
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} Alcohols react with HCl in presence of \ce{ZnCl2} to form alkyl chlorides (insoluble, appears as cloudiness).
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reactions:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{ROH + HCl ->[ZnCl2] RCl + H2O}
|
|
\item Rate: Tertiary > Secondary > Primary
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Observations:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Tertiary alcohol: Immediate cloudiness (turbidity)
|
|
\item Secondary alcohol: Cloudiness within 5-10 minutes
|
|
\item Primary alcohol: No reaction at room temperature
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Diazotization reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Formation of diazonium salts from primary aromatic amines.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Sodium nitrite (\ce{NaNO2}) and dilute \ce{HCl} at 0-5$^\circ$C
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{C6H5NH2 + NaNO2 + 2HCl ->[cold] C6H5N2+Cl- + NaCl + 2H2O}
|
|
\item Temperature must be kept low to prevent decomposition
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Applications:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Azo dye synthesis (coupling with phenols or aromatic amines)
|
|
\item Sandmeyer reaction (replacement of diazonium group)
|
|
\item Gattermann reaction
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Friedel-Crafts reactions}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Friedel-Crafts alkylation:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{C6H6 + RCl ->[AlCl3] C6H5R + HCl}
|
|
\item Introduces alkyl group onto aromatic ring
|
|
\item Catalyst: \ce{AlCl3} or \ce{FeCl3}
|
|
\item Problem: Polyalkylation and rearrangement
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Friedel-Crafts acylation:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{C6H6 + RCOCl ->[AlCl3] C6H5COR + HCl}
|
|
\item Introduces acyl group onto aromatic ring
|
|
\item More controlled than alkylation (no polyacylation)
|
|
\item Forms ketones
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Kolbe's reaction (Kolbe-Schmitt reaction)}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Synthesis of salicylic acid from phenol.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{C6H5OH + NaOH -> C6H5ONa + H2O}
|
|
\item \ce{C6H5ONa + CO2 ->[heat, pressure] C6H4(OH)COONa} (sodium salicylate)
|
|
\item \ce{C6H4(OH)COONa + HCl -> C6H4(OH)COOH + NaCl} (salicylic acid)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Conditions:} High pressure (5-7 atm), 125-130$^\circ$C
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Application:} Industrial production of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Cannizzaro reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Disproportionation of aldehydes lacking $\alpha$-hydrogen.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Principle:} In strong base, one aldehyde molecule is oxidized to carboxylate, another is reduced to alcohol.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{2RCHO + NaOH ->[no alpha-H] RCOONa + RCH2OH}
|
|
\item Example: \ce{2C6H5CHO + NaOH -> C6H5COONa + C6H5CH2OH}
|
|
\item Formaldehyde: \ce{2HCHO + NaOH -> HCOONa + CH3OH}
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Requirement:} Aldehyde must lack $\alpha$-hydrogen atoms.
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Haloform reaction}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Purpose:} Test for methyl ketones; produces haloform.
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reagent:} Halogen (\ce{I2}, \ce{Br2}, or \ce{Cl2}) in alkaline solution
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Reaction:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item \ce{CH3COR + 3I2 + 4NaOH -> RCOONa + CHI3 v + 3NaI + 3H2O}
|
|
\item Iodoform (\ce{CHI3}): Yellow precipitate with characteristic odor
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Positive test:}
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
\item Methyl ketones: \ce{R-CO-CH3}
|
|
\item Acetaldehyde: \ce{CH3CHO}
|
|
\item Ethanol: \ce{CH3CH2OH} (oxidized to acetaldehyde first)
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\textbf{Iodoform test:} Specific for compounds with \ce{CH3CO-} or \ce{CH3CH(OH)-} structure.
|
|
|
|
\section{Hydrocarbons and their Halogen derivatives}
|
|
|
|
\section{Alicyclic compounds and aromatic compounds}
|
|
|
|
\section{Alcohol, phenols, ketones and aldehyde}
|
|
|
|
\section{Carboxylic acids and esters}
|
|
|
|
\section{Amines, amides and nitriles}
|
|
|
|
\section{Thiols and thioethers}
|
|
|
|
\section{Macromolecule}
|
|
|
|
\section{Plastics}
|
|
|
|
\section{Organic compounds in everyday life}
|
|
|
|
\end{document}
|
|
|